{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T12:17:55Z","timestamp":1772626675870,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":24,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,2,1]],"date-time":"2003-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1044057600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Infect Immun"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>\n            Subunit intranasal vaccines offer the prospect of inducing combined systemic-mucosal immunity against mucosally transmitted infections such as human immunodeficiency virus. However, although human studies have demonstrated the induction of active immunity, secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) responses are variable, and no study has demonstrated protection by accepted vaccine-licensing criteria as measured by direct toxin-neutralizing activity. Using the genetically inactivated mutant diphtheria toxoid CRM\n            <jats:sub>197<\/jats:sub>\n            in a bioadhesive polycationic polysaccharide chitosan delivery system, we found that a single nasal immunization was well tolerated and boosted antitoxin neutralizing activity in healthy volunteers, which could be further boosted by a second immunization. The neutralizing activity far exceeded accepted protective levels and was equivalent to that induced by standard intramuscular vaccine and significantly greater than intranasal immunization with CRM\n            <jats:sub>197<\/jats:sub>\n            in the absence of chitosan. A striking but unexpected observation was that although unilateral intranasal immunization induced circulating antitoxin antibody-secreting cells, a nasal antitoxin sIgA response was seen only after the second immunization and only in the vaccinated nostril. If these data are reproduced in larger studies, an intranasal diphtheria vaccine based on CRM\n            <jats:sub>197<\/jats:sub>\n            -chitosan could be rapidly licensed for human use. However, a restricted sIgA response suggests that care must be taken in the priming-boosting strategy and clinical sampling techniques when evaluating such vaccines for the induction of local mucosal immunity.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.71.2.726-732.2003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,22]],"date-time":"2003-01-22T23:03:20Z","timestamp":1043276600000},"page":"726-732","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":86,"title":["Protective Levels of Diphtheria-Neutralizing Antibody Induced in Healthy Volunteers by Unilateral Priming-Boosting Intranasal Immunization Associated with Restricted Ipsilateral Mucosal Secretory Immunoglobulin A"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"71","author":[{"given":"Kingston H. G.","family":"Mills","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Immune Regulation Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Cosgrove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. George's Vaccine Institute, St. George's Hospital Medical School, London SW17 0RE"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edel A.","family":"McNeela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immune Regulation Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Amy","family":"Sexton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. George's Vaccine Institute, St. George's Hospital Medical School, London SW17 0RE"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rafaela","family":"Giemza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. George's Vaccine Institute, St. George's Hospital Medical School, London SW17 0RE"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Inderjit","family":"Jabbal-Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery and Clinical Research Centre Ltd., Albert Einstein Centre, Nottingham Science and Technology Park, Nottingham NG7 2TN, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Church","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery and Clinical Research Centre Ltd., Albert Einstein Centre, Nottingham Science and Technology Park, Nottingham NG7 2TN, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wu","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery and Clinical Research Centre Ltd., Albert Einstein Centre, Nottingham Science and Technology Park, Nottingham NG7 2TN, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lisbeth","family":"Illum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"West Pharmaceutical Services Drug Delivery and Clinical Research Centre Ltd., Albert Einstein Centre, Nottingham Science and Technology Park, Nottingham NG7 2TN, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Audino","family":"Podda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chiron Vaccines, Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rino","family":"Rappuoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chiron Vaccines, Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mariagrazia","family":"Pizza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chiron Vaccines, Siena, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George E.","family":"Griffin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. George's Vaccine Institute, St. George's Hospital Medical School, London SW17 0RE"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David J. 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