{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T21:38:03Z","timestamp":1792532283509,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,1]],"date-time":"2013-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1367366400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Virol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n          <jats:p>Galectin-9 is a pleiotropic immune modulator affecting numerous cell types of innate and adaptive immunity. Patients with chronic infection with either hepatitis C virus (HCV) or HIV have elevated circulating levels. Limited data exist on the regulation of natural killer (NK) cell function through interaction with galectin-9. We found that galectin-9 ligation downregulates multiple immune-activating genes, including eight involved in the NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity pathway, impairs lymphokine-activated killing, and decreases the proportion of gamma interferon (IFN-\u03b3)-producing NK cells that had been stimulated with interleukin-12 (IL-12)\/IL-15. We demonstrate that the transcriptional and functional changes induced by galectin-9 are independent of Tim-3. Consistent with these results for humans, we find that the genetic absence of galectin-9 in mice is associated with greater IFN-\u03b3 production by NK cells and enhanced degranulation. We also show that in the setting of a short-term (4-day) murine cytomegalovirus infection, terminally differentiated NKs accumulate in the livers of galectin-9 knockout mice, and that hepatic NKs spontaneously produce significantly more IFN-\u03b3 in this setting. Taken together, our results indicate that galectin-9 engagement impairs the function of NK cells, including cytotoxicity and cytokine production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/jvi.01085-12","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,14]],"date-time":"2013-02-14T04:23:22Z","timestamp":1360815802000},"page":"4835-4845","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":130,"title":["Galectin-9 Functionally Impairs Natural Killer Cells in Humans and Mice"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"87","author":[{"given":"Lucy","family":"Golden-Mason","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Gastroenterology &amp; Hepatology, Hepatitis C Center, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver (UCD), Aurora, Colorado, USA"},{"name":"Integrated Program in Immunology, UCD and National Jewish Hospital (NJH), Denver, Colorado, USA"},{"name":"Denver VA Medical Center, Denver, Colorado, 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