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It represents a genetic \u201cmelting pot\u201d for an ancient and continuous multi-directional inter- and intra-kingdom horizontal gene transfer between amoebae and its preys, intracellular microbial residents, endosymbionts, and giant viruses, which has shaped the evolution, selection, and adaptation of microbes that evade degradation by predatory amoeba. Unicellular phagocytic amoebae are thought to be the ancient ancestors of macrophages with highly conserved eukaryotic processes. Selection and evolution of microbes within amoeba through their evolution to target highly conserved eukaryotic processes have facilitated the expansion of their host range to mammals, causing various infectious diseases.\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Legionella<\/jats:italic>\n                      and environmental\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Chlamydia<\/jats:italic>\n                      harbor an immense number of eukaryotic-like proteins that are involved in ubiquitin-related processes or are tandem repeats-containing proteins involved in protein-protein and protein-chromatin interactions. Some of these eukaryotic-like proteins exhibit novel domain architecture and novel enzymatic functions absent in mammalian cells, such as ubiquitin ligases, likely acquired from amoebae. Mammalian cells and amoebae may respond similarly to microbial factors that target highly conserved eukaryotic processes, but mammalian cells may undergo an accidental response to amoeba-adapted microbial factors. We discuss specific examples of microbes that have evolved to evade amoeba predation, including the bacterial pathogens\u2014\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Legionella<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Chlamydia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Coxiella, Rickettssia, Francisella, Mycobacteria<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Salmonella, Bartonella<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Rhodococcus<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Pseudomonas, Vibrio<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Helicobacter<\/jats:italic>\n                      ,\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Campylobacter<\/jats:italic>\n                      , and\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Aliarcobacter<\/jats:italic>\n                      . We also discuss the fungi\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Cryptococcus,<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Asperigillus<\/jats:italic>\n                      , as well as amoebae mimiviruses\/giant viruses. We propose that amoeba-microbe interactions will continue to be a major \u201ctraining ground\u201d for the evolution, selection, adaptation, and emergence of microbial pathogens equipped with unique pathogenic tools to infect mammalian hosts. However, our progress will continue to be highly dependent on additional genomic, biochemical, and cellular data of unicellular eukaryotes.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00827-24","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,8]],"date-time":"2024-07-08T09:01:18Z","timestamp":1720429278000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Amoebae as training grounds for microbial pathogens"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-7459-5469","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher T. D.","family":"Price","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville","place":["Louisville, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah E.","family":"Hanford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville","place":["Louisville, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tasneem","family":"Al-Quadan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville","place":["Louisville, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Santic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Rijeka","place":["Rijeka, Croatia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheon J.","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Louisville","place":["Louisville, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manal S. 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