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Our study demonstrates that both the virus and host are important in disease pathogenesis and offers new insights into their roles. We found that distinct cytokine profiles were associated with disease severity and clinical outcome. In particular, resolution of classic acute hepatitis B (AHB) correlated with a predominant Th1 response, whereas HBV\/HDV coinfection showed a predominant proinflammatory response. Severe AHB and HDV superinfection showed a restricted cytokine profile and no evidence of Th1 response. The lack of cytokines associated with adaptive T-cell responses toward the precore HBV mutant and HDV superinfection argues in favor of a direct cytopathic effect of these viruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02580-20","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,16]],"date-time":"2020-11-16T13:59:50Z","timestamp":1605535190000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Distinct Cytokine Profiles Correlate with Disease Severity and Outcome in Longitudinal Studies of Acute Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis D Virus Infection in Chimpanzees"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Ronald E.","family":"Engle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hepatic Pathogenesis Section, Laboratory of Infectious Diseases (LID), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, 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