{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T05:29:05Z","timestamp":1791437345797,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"American Society for Microbiology","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/non-commercial-tdm-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.asm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["mSphere"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title\/>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Microbes must adapt to diverse biotic and abiotic factors encountered in host environments. Polyamines are an abundant class of aliphatic molecules that play essential roles in fundamental cellular processes across the tree of life. Surprisingly, the bacterial pathogen\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      is highly sensitive to polyamines encountered during infection, and acquisition of a polyamine resistance locus has been implicated in the spread of the prominent USA300 methicillin-resistant\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      lineage. At present, alternative pathways of polyamine resistance in staphylococci are largely unknown. Here, we applied experimental evolution to identify novel mechanisms and consequences of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      adaptation when exposed to increasing concentrations of the polyamine spermine. Evolved populations of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      exhibited striking evidence of parallel adaptation, accumulating independent mutations in the potassium transporter genes\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktrA<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktrD<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Mutations in either\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktrA<\/jats:italic>\n                      or\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktrD<\/jats:italic>\n                      are sufficient to confer polyamine resistance and function in an additive manner. Moreover, we find that\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations provide protection against multiple classes of unrelated cationic antibiotics, suggesting a common mechanism of resistance. Consistent with this hypothesis, ktr mutants exhibit alterations in cell surface charge indicative of reduced affinity and uptake of cationic molecules. Finally, we observe that laboratory-evolved\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">ktr<\/jats:italic>\n                      mutations are also present in diverse natural\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      isolates, suggesting these mutations contribute to antimicrobial resistance during human infections. Collectively, this study identifies a new role for the\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      potassium transport system in resistance to both host-derived and clinically used antimicrobials.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>IMPORTANCE<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Staphylococcus aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      is a leading cause of infectious disease-related deaths globally. Understanding factors that govern adaptation and survival of\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      and other pathogens in the host environment is critical for improving infection outcomes. It has been known for several years that\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      is highly sensitive to polyamines, a broadly produced class of molecules that play important cellular functions across bacteria and eukaryotes. How\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      is capable of adapting to polyamine toxicity remains largely mysterious. Using experimental evolution, our study reveals that changes in potassium transport are sufficient to confer high-level polyamine resistance in\n                      <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">S. aureus<\/jats:italic>\n                      while simultaneously increasing resistance to unrelated classes of clinically used antibiotics. Our results identify new roles for bacterial potassium transport in polyamine resistance as well as highlighting the utility of experimental evolution for identifying new genetic determinants of pathogen adaptation.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1128\/msphere.00613-24","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]],"date-time":"2025-08-18T13:00:44Z","timestamp":1755522044000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/asmj-crossmark-policy-page","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Evolution of polyamine resistance in\n                    <i>Staphylococcus aureus<\/i>\n                    through modulation of potassium transport"],"prefix":"10.1128","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1908-4870","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Killian","family":"Campbell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0293rh119","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Biology, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caitlin H.","family":"Kowalski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristin M.","family":"Kohler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mara R.","family":"Kebret","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0293rh119","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Biology, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2008-2165","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Matthew F.","family":"Barber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0293rh119","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Biology, University of Oregon","place":["Eugene, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"235","reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2013.03.020"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajic.2014.12.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010040"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16897-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(10)70285-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-012615-044351"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.05.015"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0147-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1202869109"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(22)02185-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)02724-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2019.01.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00852-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-29717-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011098"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2011.07809.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2012.00937.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.R116.734780"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2009.07.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BCJ20160185"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msn161"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.162362899"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.104.041699"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2018.06.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20031327"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.49.1.81-99.1985"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2008.06126.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2012.11.012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00889-13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(06)68231-7"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv320"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.12312"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00125-16"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00407-13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2019.07.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2013.07.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.147.3.820-826.1981"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0079-6603(03)75008-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/ecosalplus.ESP-0002-2018"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00405-08"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/23744235.2022.2049863"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.948343"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2019.12.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-19316-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-10-1-11"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00719-07"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01659-18"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2015.02.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011531"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011536"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2011.07808.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.188.2.687-693.2006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00241-13"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-0554-6_12"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00277-11"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2006.03127.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-26517-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2016.00029"}],"container-title":["mSphere"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/msphere.00613-24","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1128\/msphere.00613-24","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T13:02:49Z","timestamp":1759237369000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.asm.org\/doi\/10.1128\/msphere.00613-24"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Paul D.","family":"Fey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1128\/msphere.00613-24"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1128\/msphere.00613-24","relation":{},"ISSN":["2379-5042"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2379-5042","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-07-17","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-07","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-08-18","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e00613-24"}}