{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T05:16:00Z","timestamp":1792732560520,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"11","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100004440","name":"Wellcome Trust","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["104025\/Z\/14\/Z"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["104025\/Z\/14\/Z"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100004440","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000265","name":"Medical Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["MR\/L015382\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MR\/L015382\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000265","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To investigate medications associated with cognitive function.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Population-based cross-sectional cohort study.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Setting<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>UK Biobank.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Participants<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>UK Biobank participants aged 37\u201373\u2005years who completed cognitive tests at the baseline visit in 2006\u20132010.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Main outcome measures<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cognitive test outcomes on verbal\u2013numerical reasoning test (n=165\u2005493), memory test (n=482\u2005766) and reaction time test (n=496\u2005813).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Most drugs (262 of 368) were not associated with any cognitive tests after adjusting for age, gender, education, household income, smoking, alcohol status, psychostimulant\/nootropic medication use, assessment centre, and concurrent diagnoses and medications. Drugs used for nervous system disorders were associated with poorer cognitive performance (antiepileptics, eg, topiramate b\n                      <jats:sub>reasoning(score)<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22120.65 (95% CI \u22121.05 to \u22120.24), b\n                      <jats:sub>memory(score)<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22121.41 (\u22121.79 to \u22121.04); antipsychotics, eg, risperidone b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time(ms)<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u221233 (\u221246 to \u221220), negative values indicate poor cognitive performance and vice versa). Drugs used for non-nervous system conditions also showed significant negative association with cognitive score, including those where such an association might have been predicted (antihypertensives, eg, amlodipine b\n                      <jats:sub>reasoning<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22120.1 (\u22120.15 to \u22120.06), b\n                      <jats:sub>memory<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22120.08 (\u22120.13 to \u22120.03), b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22123 (\u22125 to \u22122); antidiabetics, eg, insulin b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u221213 (\u221217 to \u221210)) and others where such an association was a surprising observation (proton pump inhibitors, eg, omeprazole b\n                      <jats:sub>reasoning<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22120.11 (\u22120.15 to \u22120.06), b\n                      <jats:sub>memory<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22120.08 (\u22120.12 to \u22120.04), b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u22125 (\u22126 to \u22123); laxatives, eg, contact laxatives b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      \u221213 (\u221219 to \u22128)). Finally, only a few medications and health supplements showed association towards a positive effect on cognitive function (anti-inflammatory agents, eg, ibuprofen b\n                      <jats:sub>reasoning<\/jats:sub>\n                      0.05 (0.02 to 0.08), b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      4 (3, 5); glucosamine b\n                      <jats:sub>reasoning<\/jats:sub>\n                      0.09 (0.03 to 0.14), b\n                      <jats:sub>reaction time<\/jats:sub>\n                      5 (3 to 6)).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this large volunteer study, some commonly prescribed medications were associated with poor cognitive performance. Some associations may reflect underlying diseases for which the medications were prescribed, although the analysis controlled for the possible effect of diagnosis. Other drugs, whose association cannot be linked to the effect of any disease, may need vigilance for their implications in clinical practice.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012177","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,30]],"date-time":"2016-11-30T22:30:28Z","timestamp":1480545028000},"page":"e012177","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Commonly prescribed drugs associate with cognitive function: a cross-sectional study in UK Biobank"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Alejo J","family":"Nevado-Holgado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8167-4530","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chi-Hun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Winchester","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Gallacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Lovestone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086299"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd3869"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.2741\/s432","article-title":"Drug repositioning in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"7","author":"Corbett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Biosci Sch Ed"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001779"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1624","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2015.225","article-title":"Shared genetic aetiology between cognitive functions and physical and mental health in UK Biobank (N=112151) and 24 GWAS consortia","volume":"21","author":"Hagenaars","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.45"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0154222","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0154222","article-title":"Cognitive test scores in UK Biobank: data reduction in 480,416 participants and longitudinal stability in 20,346 participants","volume":"11","author":"Lyall","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cger.2013.07.002"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(12)70152-7"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a006171"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.11","unstructured":"WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology , Guidelines for ATC classification and DDD assignment 2016 . Oslo, 2016. http:\/\/www.whocc.no\/atc_ddd_publications\/guidelines\/ (accessed 2 Mar 2016)."},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.015"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02905.x","article-title":"Epilepsy, cognition, and behavior: the clinical picture","volume":"52","author":"Berg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.14","first-page":"31","article-title":"Procedural learning in schizophrenia: further consideration on the deleterious effect of neuroleptics","volume":"43","author":"B\u00e9dard","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.63.11.1189"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00023210-200923020-00003"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.3988\/jcn.2008.4.3.99","article-title":"Cognitive effects of antiepileptic drugs","volume":"4","author":"Park","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Clin Neurol Seoul Korea"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2664","article-title":"Memory and executive functions in persons with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis","volume":"32","author":"Sadanand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab Res Rev"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.186429"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12175"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2015.4791","article-title":"Association of proton pump inhibitors with risk of dementia: a pharmacoepidemiological claims data analysis","volume":"73","author":"Gomm","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-014-0554-0","article-title":"Risk of dementia in elderly patients with the use of proton pump inhibitors","volume":"265","author":"Haenisch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1007\/s11357-013-9608-x","article-title":"Increased risk of dementia in patients with osteoporosis: a population-based retrospective cohort analysis","volume":"36","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Age (Dordr)"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205011666140812115818","article-title":"Bone loss and osteoporosis are associated with conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease","volume":"11","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Alzheimer Res"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)70016-5"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.59.6.880"},{"key":"2025121408032804000_6.11.e012177.27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000284596.95156.48"}],"container-title":["BMJ Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012177","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,14]],"date-time":"2025-12-14T16:03:34Z","timestamp":1765728214000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmjopen.bmj.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012177"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,30]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012177"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-012177","relation":{},"ISSN":["2044-6055","2044-6055"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2044-6055","type":"print"},{"value":"2044-6055","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]}}}