{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T01:39:09Z","timestamp":1787017149077,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,19]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,3]]},"abstract":"\n Objective<\/jats:title>\n \n To assess the health risks associated with exposure to particulate matter (PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n ), sulphur dioxide (SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n ), nitrogen dioxide (NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n ), carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O\n 3<\/jats:sub>\n ).\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Design<\/jats:title>\n The study is an ecological study that used the year 2014 hourly ambient pollution data.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Setting<\/jats:title>\n The study was conducted in an industrial area located in Pretoria West, South Africa. The area accommodates a coal-fired power station, metallurgical industries such as a coke plant and a manganese smelter.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Data and method<\/jats:title>\n \n Estimate of possible health risks from exposure to airborne PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n , CO and O\n 3<\/jats:sub>\n was performed using the US Environmental Protection Agency human health risk assessment framework. A scenario-assessment approach where normal (average exposure) and worst-case (continuous exposure) scenarios were developed for intermediate (24-hour) and chronic (annual) exposure periods for different exposure groups (infants, children, adults). The normal acute (1-hour) exposure to these pollutants was also determined.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Outcome measures<\/jats:title>\n Presence or absence of adverse health effects from exposure to airborne pollutants.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n Average annual ambient concentration of PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n and SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n recorded was 48.3\u00b143.4, 11.50\u00b111.6 and 18.68\u00b125.4\u2005\u00b5g\/m\n 3<\/jats:sup>\n , respectively, whereas the South African National Ambient Air Quality recommended 40, 40 and 50\u2005\u00b5g\/m\n 3<\/jats:sup>\n for PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n and SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n , respectively. Exposure to an hour's concentration of NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n , SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n , CO and O\n 3<\/jats:sub>\n , an 8-hour concentration of CO and O\n 3<\/jats:sub>\n , and a 24-hour concentration of PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n and SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n will not likely produce adverse effects to sensitive exposed groups. However, infants and children, rather than adults, are more likely to be affected. Moreover, for chronic annual exposure, PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n and SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n posed a health risk to sensitive individuals, with the severity of risk varying across exposed groups.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n \n Long-term chronic exposure to airborne PM\n 10<\/jats:sub>\n , NO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n and SO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n pollutants may result in health risks among the study population.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2016-013941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,13]],"date-time":"2017-03-13T20:45:59Z","timestamp":1489437959000},"page":"e013941","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":70,"title":["Health risk of inhalation exposure to sub-10\u2005\u00b5m particulate matter and gaseous pollutants in an urban-industrial area in South Africa: an ecological study"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Oyewale Mayowa","family":"Morakinyo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayo Stephen","family":"Adebowale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matlou Ingrid","family":"Mokgobu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Murembiwa Stanley","family":"Mukhola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121602135166000_7.3.e013941.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2012.126"},{"key":"2025121602135166000_7.3.e013941.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61766-8"},{"key":"2025121602135166000_7.3.e013941.3","unstructured":"EPA, Environmental Protection Agency. 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