{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:50:05Z","timestamp":1789519805087,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,18]],"date-time":"2023-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1674000000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":17,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Partnership","award":["2006957"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2006957"]}]},{"name":"National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Partnership","award":["APP1143941"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APP1143941"]}]},{"name":"National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Partnership","award":["APP1174021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["APP1174021"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Antibiotic prescribing in primary care contributes significantly to antibiotic overuse. Nudge interventions alter the decision-making environment to achieve behaviour change without restricting options. Our objectives were to conduct a systematic review to describe the types of nudge interventions used to reduce unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in primary care, their key features, and their effects on antibiotic prescribing overall.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Medline, Embase and grey literature were searched for randomised trials or regression discontinuity studies in April 2021. Risk of bias was assessed independently by two researchers using the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care group\u2019s tool. Results were synthesised to report the percentage of studies demonstrating a reduction in overall antibiotic prescribing for different types of nudges. Effects of social norm nudges were examined for features that may enhance effectiveness.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Nineteen studies were included, testing 23 nudge interventions. Four studies were rated as having a high risk of bias, nine as moderate risk of bias and six as at low risk. Overall, 78.3% (n=18, 95%\u2009CI 58.1 to 90.3) of the nudges evaluated resulted in a reduction in overall antibiotic prescribing. Social norm feedback was the most frequently applied nudge (n=17), with 76.5% (n=13; 95%\u2009CI 52.7 to 90.4) of these studies reporting a reduction. Other nudges applied were changing option consequences (n=3; with 2 reporting a reduction), providing reminders (n=2; 2 reporting a reduction) and facilitating commitment (n=1; reporting a reduction). Successful social norm nudges typically either included an injunctive norm, compared prescribing to physicians with the lowest prescribers or targeted high prescribers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Nudge interventions are effective for improving antibiotic prescribing in primary care. Expanding the use of nudge interventions beyond social norm nudges could reap further improvements in antibiotic prescribing practices. Policy-makers and managers need to be mindful of how social norm nudges are implemented to enhance intervention effects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-062688","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,19]],"date-time":"2023-01-19T01:12:09Z","timestamp":1674090729000},"page":"e062688","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Nudge interventions to reduce unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in primary care: a systematic review"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6995-2849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena Z","family":"Raban","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gabriela","family":"Gonzalez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy D","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"},{"name":"St Vincent\u2019s Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ben R","family":"Newell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1642-142X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ling","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karla L","family":"Seaman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1083-8192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johanna I","family":"Westbrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Institute of Health Innovation, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121511421225000_13.1.e062688.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30471-7","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance: a threat to global health","volume":"18","author":"Jee","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"2025121511421225000_13.1.e062688.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(14)70780-7"},{"key":"2025121511421225000_13.1.e062688.3","unstructured":"World Health Organization . 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