{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T01:20:00Z","timestamp":1793409600999,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679875200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":26,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DP200101020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DP200101020"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,28]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Non-fatal strangulation (NFS) is a serious form of gendered violence that is fast becoming an offence in many jurisdictions worldwide. However, it often leaves little or no externally visible injuries making prosecution challenging. This review aimed to provide an overview of how health professionals can support the prosecution of criminal charges of NFS as part of regular practice, particularly when externally visible injuries are absent.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Eleven databases were searched with terms related to NFS and medical evidence in health sciences and legal databases. Eligible articles were English language and peer reviewed, published before 30 June 2021; sample over 18 years that had primarily survived a strangulation attempt and included medical investigations of NFS injuries, clinical documentation of NFS or medical evidence related to NFS prosecution.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Searches found 25 articles that were included for review. Alternate light sources appeared to be the most effective tool for finding evidence of intradermal injury among NFS survivors that were not otherwise visible. However, there was only one article that examined the utility of this tool. Other common diagnostic imaging was less effective at detection, but were sought after by prosecutors, particularly MRIs of the head and neck. Recording injuries and other aspects of the assault using standardised tools specific for NFS were suggested for documenting evidence. Other documentation included writing verbatim quotes of the experience of the assault and taking good quality photographs that could assist with corroborating a survivor\u2019s story and proving intent, if relevant for the jurisdiction.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Clinical responses to NFS should include investigation and standardised documentation of internal and external injuries, subjective complaints and the experience of the assault. These records can assist in providing corroborating evidence of the assault, reducing the need for survivor testimony in court proceedings and increasing the likelihood of a guilty plea.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072077","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]],"date-time":"2023-03-27T11:36:53Z","timestamp":1679917013000},"page":"e072077","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Medical evidence assisting non-fatal strangulation prosecution: a scoping review"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1989-6380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leah S","family":"Sharman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Law School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1860-5716","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robin","family":"Fitzgerald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, The University of Queensland, Saint Lucia, Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0420-3820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heather","family":"Douglas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Melbourne Law School, The University of Melbourne, Carlton, Victoria, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2010.01459.x"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00400-0"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jen.2014.10.013","article-title":"Strangulation: know the symptoms, save a life","volume":"41","author":"Foley","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Emerg Nurs"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2020.1868537","article-title":"The neuropsychological outcomes of non-fatal strangulation in domestic and sexual violence: a systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Bichard","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychol Rehabil"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1177\/0361684313488354","article-title":"\"Do you know what it feels like to drown?\u201d: strangulation as coercive control in intimate relationships","volume":"38","author":"Thomas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol Women Q"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jen.2017.12.001","article-title":"Injuries of women surviving intimate partner strangulation and subsequent emergency health care seeking: an integrative evidence review","volume":"44","author":"Patch","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Emerg Nurs"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e54","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2014.302191","article-title":"A systematic review of the epidemiology of nonfatal strangulation, a human rights and health concern","volume":"104","author":"Sorenson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Public Health"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jemermed.2007.02.065"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00402-4"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.10","first-page":"87","article-title":"The criminalisation of a dangerous form of coercive control: non-fatal strangulation in England and Wales and Australia","volume":"8","author":"Edwards","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of International and Comparative Law"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1111\/1742-6723.13243","article-title":"Review article: non-fatal strangulation: hidden injuries, hidden risks","volume":"31","author":"De Boos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg Med Australas"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838015622439"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s10896-020-00208-7","article-title":"Nonfatal strangulation (NFS) and intimate partner violence: a brief overview","volume":"37","author":"Monahan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Fam Viol"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1177\/13657127211036175","article-title":"Proving non-fatal strangulation in family violence cases: a case study on the criminalisation of family violence","volume":"25","author":"Douglas","year":"2021","journal-title":"The International Journal of Evidence & Proof"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pathol.2021.05.035","article-title":"Non-Fatal strangulation and the gold coast forensic medicine clinical and legal experience","volume":"53","author":"Fietz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pathology"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2524.2007.00721.x","article-title":"Systematic review of the perceptions and experiences of accessing health services by adult victims of domestic violence","volume":"16","author":"Robinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Health Soc Care Community"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2010.05.004"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-009-1353-2"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaoto.2016.0293","article-title":"Recognition and documentation of strangulation crimes: a review","volume":"142","author":"Armstrong","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1097\/TME.0b013e3182aa05d3","article-title":"Strangulation forensic examination: best practice for health care providers","volume":"35","author":"Faugno","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv Emerg Nurs J"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-006-0121-y"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3458","DOI":"10.1007\/s00330-019-06033-x","article-title":"Value of 3T craniocervical magnetic resonance imaging following nonfatal strangulation","volume":"29","author":"Heimer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur Radiol"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1097\/JFN.0b013e31829beb1e","article-title":"Use of an alternative light source to assess strangulation victims","volume":"9","author":"Holbrook","year":"2013","journal-title":"J Forensic Nurs"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s10140-019-01690-3","article-title":"Ct angiograms of the neck in strangulation victims: incidence of positive findings at a level one trauma center over a 7-year period","volume":"26","author":"Zuberi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg Radiol"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1080\/20961790.2019.1592314","article-title":"Neck-MRI experience for investigation of survived strangulation victims","volume":"5","author":"Bruguier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forensic Sci Res"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annemergmed.2019.07.018","article-title":"Evaluation of nonfatal strangulation in alert adults","volume":"75","author":"Matusz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann Emerg Med"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PAF.0b013e3181d3dc02"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1111\/1742-6723.13519","article-title":"Domestic and family violence, non-lethal strangulation and social work intervention in the emergency department","volume":"32","author":"Marks","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg Med Australas"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.29","first-page":"41","article-title":"Strangulation injuries","volume":"102","author":"Funk","year":"2003","journal-title":"WMJ"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1097\/TME.0000000000000305","article-title":"A case of nonfatal strangulation associated with intimate partner violence","volume":"42","author":"Jordan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv Emerg Nurs J"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.3138\/cjwl.24.2.328","article-title":"Every breath you take: erotic asphyxiation, vengeful wives, and other enduring myths in spousal sexual assault prosecutions","volume":"24","author":"Busby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Women and the Law"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.32","unstructured":"Duflou J . Progress in forensic pathology and investigations. Precedent, 2020: 8\u201313."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.33","unstructured":"Cloud C . Investing as a community: analyzing strangulation cases & implementing a MDT strangulation protocol to reduce domestic violence homicides. Prosecutor, 2019: 53."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Strack GB , Gwinn C . On the edge of homocide: strangulation as a prelude. Criminal Justice 2011;26. doi:10.35632\/ajis.v21i1.1819","DOI":"10.35632\/ajis.v21i1.1819"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.35","first-page":"27","article-title":"Investigation and prosecution of strangulation cases","volume":"13","author":"Strack","year":"2020","journal-title":"Family & Intimate Partner Violence Quarterly"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.36","unstructured":"Prior T . San diego county\u2019s strangulation protocol: improving evidence collection to win the war. Prosecutor, 2018: 52."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.37","unstructured":"Edwards SSM . The strangulation of female partners. In: Criminal law review. 2015: 949\u201366."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1891\/VV-D-18-00105"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0736-4679(01)00399-7"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.7748\/ns.24.11.35.s45","article-title":"Providing first aid and assisting forensic investigations","volume":"24","author":"Dean","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nurs Stand"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.1080\/07418825.2016.1244285","article-title":"Victim cooperation in intimate partner sexual assault cases: a mixed methods examination","volume":"34","author":"O\u2019Neal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Justice Quarterly"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1017\/bec.2022.15","article-title":"Social identities mediate the relationship between isolation, life transitions, and loneliness","volume":"39","author":"Evans","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav Change"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kilcoyne RF , Richardson ML , Porter BA , et al . Magnetic Resonance Imaging of soft tissue masses. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1988:13\u20139.","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198803000-00002"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.44","unstructured":"Klasinc I , Ogris K , Ehammer T , et al . Does MR of the neck improve the credibility of victims after manual strangulation. 2017. Available: https:\/\/cds.ismrm.org\/protected\/17MProceedings\/PDFfiles\/4658.html [Accessed 18 Jan 2023]."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-6909.2007.00226.x"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.46","unstructured":"McLean M . The identification, care and advocacy of strangulation victims: information for front line workers and crisis advocates. Victorian Order of Nurses for Canada, 2012."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.47","unstructured":"Sharman LS , Douglas HA , Fitzgerald R . Understanding the non-fatal strangulation offence: interviews with domestic violence service workers. Key outcomes (the University of Melbourne\/the University of Queensland). 2022. Available: https:\/\/law.unimelb.edu.au\/__data\/assets\/pdf_file\/0008\/4287968\/NFS-Services-Report-Sharman-et-al-2022.pdf"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(95)01886-7"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801205274450"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2230.2007.00670.x","article-title":"Toward a feminist state: what does'\u2018ffective'\u2019prosecution of domestic violence mean?","volume":"70","author":"Dempsey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Modern Law Review"},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.51","unstructured":"Goodman-delahunty J , Hewson L . Improving jury understanding and use of DNA expert evidence. 2010."},{"key":"2025121603031672000_13.3.e072077.52","unstructured":"The Royal Australian College of General Practitioners (RACGP) . Abuse and violence - working with our patients in general practice (white book) - migrant and refugee communities. 2014."}],"container-title":["BMJ Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072077","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,16]],"date-time":"2025-12-16T11:03:31Z","timestamp":1765883011000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmjopen.bmj.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072077"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,27]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072077"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2023-072077","relation":{},"ISSN":["2044-6055","2044-6055"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2044-6055","type":"print"},{"value":"2044-6055","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3]]}}}