{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T23:27:19Z","timestamp":1789687639267,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,18]],"date-time":"2025-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737158400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":17,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aims to assess the magnitude of opportunistic infection (OI) and to identify factors associated with OIs among people living with HIV (PLHIV) on antiretroviral treatment (ART), attending HIV care and treatment clinics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A hospital-based cross-sectional study.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Setting<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study was conducted at Muhimbili National Hospital, Mwananyamala and Temeke Regional Referral Hospitals, in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Participants<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We enrolled 382 PLHIV on ART who were attending HIV care and treatment clinics in Dar es Salaam. Structured questionnaires were used to collect socio-demographic information, and a checklist was used to extract clinical characteristics from the client\u2019s HIV care and treatment clinic cards. Information was subjected to descriptive and regression analysis using Stata V.13. All factors were considered significant at p&lt;0.05.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Primary outcome<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Magnitude, spectrum of OI and associated factors among PLHIV using ART.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 382 PLHIV on ART were randomly selected and recruited in the study. The overall prevalence of OIs was 25.13%; the leading OI was tuberculosis affecting 58 patients (15.2%). CD4+ T\u2009cell counts\u2264200\u2009cells\/\u00b5L (aOR=13.61; 95%\u2009CI: 6.09 to 30.38)\u2009p&lt;0.001, isoniazid preventive treatment (IPT) (aOR=4.10; 95%\u2009CI: 1.97 to 8.53)\u2009p&lt;0.001, WHO clinical stage 4 (aOR=6.37; 95%\u2009CI: 1.47 to 27.61) p=0.013, divorced individuals (aOR=3.57; 95%\u2009CI: 1.43 to 8.90) p=0.006, male (aOR=3.04; 95%\u2009CI: 1.50 to 6.17) p=0.007, haemoglobin level&lt;11.0\u2009g\/dL (aOR=2.25; 95%\u2009CI: 1.14 to 4.47) p=0.020 and level of education of primary and below (aOR=4.31; 95%\u2009CI: 1.8 to 10.32) p=0.001 showed significant association with OIs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There was still a high prevalence of OI observed in this study which needs to be addressed. CD4+ T\u2009cell counts of \u2264200\u2009cells\/\u00b5L, advanced WHO clinical stages, no use of IPT prophylaxis, anaemia and low education level were predictors of OIs. Promptly implementing the test-and-treat protocol while an individual\u2019s immunity is still strong and timely screening for OI are critical.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-085725","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]],"date-time":"2025-01-20T21:35:28Z","timestamp":1737408928000},"page":"e085725","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Magnitude of opportunistic infections and associated factors among HIV-infected individuals attending care and treatment clinics in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: a hospital-based cross-sectional study"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5474-3762","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Doris Andrew","family":"Njelekela","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology, Muhimbili National Hospital, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5437-7589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rogath","family":"Kishimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tanzania Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme (TFELTP), Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7258-4488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mololo","family":"Noah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tanzania Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme (TFELTP), Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5162-6554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Doreen","family":"Kamori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"},{"name":"Joint Research Center for Human Retrovirus Infection, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3726-2816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mtebe","family":"Majigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1024-8072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agricola","family":"Joachim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/1573396315666190617151745"},{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e3182a39979","article-title":"Immunodeficiency at the start of combination antiretroviral therapy in low-, middle-, and high-income countries","volume":"65","author":"Avila","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr"},{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-018-3707-9","article-title":"Spectrum of opportunistic infections and associated factors among people living with HIV\/AIDS in the era of highly active anti-retroviral treatment in Dawro Zone hospital: a retrospective study","volume":"11","author":"Solomon","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMC Res Notes"},{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1087086","article-title":"Prevalence and determinants of opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Woldegeorgis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/367655"},{"key":"2025121600351062000_15.1.e085725.6","unstructured":"Justiz Vaillant AA , Naik R . 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