{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T07:32:27Z","timestamp":1772695947557,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,19]],"date-time":"2025-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752883200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":18,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a debilitating condition characterised by the overuse of opioid medications and the development of physical and\/or psychological dependence. Consequences of this condition include chronic impairment, distress and later life-altering health conditions such as overdose, all of which have been highlighted by the prominence of OUD in the USA in recent years. Buprenorphine is a standard OUD treatment and commonly used for pain management. Understanding changes in distribution patterns across the USA is vital for continuing to improve outcomes for OUD patients.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study used the Drug Enforcement Administration\u2019s Automated Reports and Consolidated Ordering System (ARCOS) and the US Census Bureau Population Estimates databases to analyse changes in buprenorphine distribution among pharmacies and hospitals from 2019 to 2023, to determine temporal patterns and to identify state-level disparities using the data. The data were corrected for population to identify patterns of buprenorphine distribution in the USA from 2021 to 2022 and 2022 to 2023 through examining percent changes in milligrams per 100 population at the national and state levels.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The year-to-year percent change of national buprenorphine distribution from pharmacies has remained positive but changed from a 12.2% increase from 2019 to 2020 (figure 4) to a four per cent increase every year from 2020 to 2023. From 2021 to 2022, there was a +4.9% increase in total grams of buprenorphine distributed to pharmacies and a 95%\u2009CI [\u22125.1, 14.9], with the District of Columbia, South Dakota and Nebraska outside of the 95%\u2009CI. Distribution to hospitals increased by 10.2% [-32.3, 52.7] during 2021\u20132022, with Hawaii, New Hampshire and Delaware being outside of 95%\u2009CI. From 2022 to 2023, there was an increase of +5.7%\u2009and 95%\u2009CI [\u22123.5, 14.9] in pharmacy distribution, with states including Washington, Rhode Island and Kansas remain outside of the 95%\u2009CI. Hospital distribution has decreased from twenty per cent between 2019 and 2020 (figure 4) to eighteen per cent between 2022 and 2023.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Following increases in buprenorphine distribution during the COVID pandemic, a consistent increase has continued year-over-year in most states and the country overall by both pharmacies and hospitals. Some states (eg, Rhode Island, Georgia, District of Columbia) have not followed this pattern. Notably, Hawaii went from the most negative percent change in hospital distribution to the most positive change in the timeframe analysed. This may offer opportunities to analyse more specific impacts of the increased buprenorphine distribution on populations and their outcomes associated with OUD.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-094454","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,21]],"date-time":"2025-07-21T01:25:18Z","timestamp":1753061118000},"page":"e094454","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Analysis of buprenorphine distribution patterns among pharmacies and hospitals in the USA from 2019 to 2023"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6523-4080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Gikoska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna K","family":"Florio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"George","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brian J","family":"Piper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, Pennsylvania, USA"},{"name":"Geisinger Health System, Danville, Pennsylvania, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.1","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. DSM-5-TR. American Psychiatric Association Publishing, 2022. Available: https:\/\/psychiatryonline.org\/doi\/book\/10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.2","unstructured":"Ahmad FB , Cisewski JA , Rossen LM , et al . Provisional drug overdose death counts. National Center for Health Statistics; 2024."},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.3","unstructured":"Substance abuse and mental health services administration (samhsa), key substance use and mental health indicators in the united states: results from the 2023 national survey on drug use and health, hhs publication no. PEP24-07-021, NSDUH series H-59, center for behavioral health statistics and quality, substance abuse and mental health services administration. 2024."},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.4","unstructured":"Committee USJE . The economic toll of the opioid crisis reached nearly $1.5 trillion in 2020 - the economic toll of the opioid crisis reached nearly $1.5 trillion in 2020 - united states joint economic committee. Available: https:\/\/www.jec.senate.gov\/public\/index.cfm\/democrats\/2022\/9\/the-economic-toll-of-the-opioid-crisis-reached-nearly-1-5-trillion-in-2020 [Accessed 28 Sep 2024]."},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mattick RP , Kimber J , Breen C , et al . Buprenorphine maintenance versus placebo or methadone maintenance for opioid dependence. 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Available: https:\/\/www.graphpad.com\/features [Accessed 27 Aug 2024]."},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2196\/47186","article-title":"Developing a Theoretically Informed Implementation Model for Telemedicine-Delivered Medication for Opioid Use Disorder: Qualitative Study With Key Informants","volume":"10","author":"Tay Wee Teck","year":"2023","journal-title":"JMIR Ment Health"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.21111141"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2020.108272"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2021.108283"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1177\/0033354920968805","article-title":"What Strategies Are Hospitals Adopting to Address the Opioid Epidemic? Evidence From a National Sample of Nonprofit Hospitals","volume":"136","author":"Franz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Public Health Rep"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.josat.2023.209195","article-title":"Pharmacy-based expansion of buprenorphine access","volume":"157","author":"Clark","year":"2024","journal-title":"J Subst Use Addict Treat"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2022.108777","article-title":"Understanding opportunities and challenges with telemedicine-delivered buprenorphine during the COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"139","author":"Mattocks","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Subst Abuse Treat"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.25","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences E, Division H and M, Policy B on HS, Disorder C on M-AT for OU, Mancher M, Leshner AI . Barriers to broader use of medications to treat opioid use disorder. In: Medications for opioid use disorder save lives. National Academies Press (US), 2019."},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.51856","article-title":"Trends and Characteristics of Buprenorphine-Involved Overdose Deaths Prior to and During the COVID-19 Pandemic","volume":"6","author":"Tanz","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2025121221395089000_15.7.e094454.27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-021-00521-4","article-title":"Factors associated with opioid overdose during medication-assisted treatment: How can we identify individuals at risk?","volume":"18","author":"Au","year":"2021","journal-title":"Harm Reduct J"}],"container-title":["BMJ Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-094454","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,13]],"date-time":"2025-12-13T05:40:01Z","timestamp":1765604401000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bmjopen.bmj.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-094454"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,20]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-094454"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmjopen-2024-094454","relation":{},"ISSN":["2044-6055","2044-6055"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2044-6055","type":"print"},{"value":"2044-6055","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}}}