{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T13:10:40Z","timestamp":1765372240104,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764115200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":25,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,6]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To assess the comparative effectiveness of educational interventions in neurological disease for healthcare workers and students.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Systematic review.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Data sources<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Medline, Embase and Cochrane through to 1 June 2025.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Eligibility criteria<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Studies evaluating neurological disease educational interventions with a comparator group (observational cohort\/randomised controlled trial (RCT)) were included.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Data extraction and synthesis<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses-compliant systematic review was conducted (PROSPERO: CRD42023461838). Knowledge acquisition and educational methodologies were collected from each study. Study outcomes were classified using the Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick four-level model (learner reaction, knowledge acquisition, behavioural change, clinical outcome).\n                      <jats:sup>1<\/jats:sup>\n                      Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for non-randomised studies and the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for RCTs.\n                      <jats:sup>2 3<\/jats:sup>\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 67 studies involving 4728 participants were included. Of these, 36 were RCTs, and 31 were observational studies. Virtual interventions were the most common (67.2%, n=45 studies), primarily targeting either medical students (46.3%, n=31 studies) or specialists (40.3%, n=27 studies). Overall, 70.1% (n=47) of studies demonstrated outcomes in favour of the intervention. However, few studies used K&amp;K level 3\/4 outcomes, with two studies evaluating behaviour change (level 3) and three assessing clinical outcomes (level 4 combined with other levels). No study exclusively assessed level 4 outcomes. Meta-analysis of 22 RCTs with calculable standardised mean differences (SMDs) (n=1748) showed a significant benefit of interventions (SMD 0.75, 95%\u2009CI 0.22 to 1.27, p=0.0056).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This review highlights a growing body of research particularly focusing on virtual techniques, specialist audiences and treatment-oriented content. Few studies assessed changes in practice or patient care. Non-specialists remain underrepresented. Future studies should prioritise assessing the clinical impact of educational interventions within non-specialist audiences.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2025-107475","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T03:45:44Z","timestamp":1764301544000},"page":"e107475","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative effectiveness of educational interventions in neurological disease for healthcare workers and students: a systematic review"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5138-7565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Munashe","family":"Veremu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhilin","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Conor S","family":"Gillespie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Roman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"William H","family":"Cook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rohil V","family":"Chauhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Active Living and Rehabilitation: Aotearoa New Zealand, Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Amir","family":"Rafati Fard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Toumbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3738-8608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shehla","family":"Baig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"City St George\u2019s University of London, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carl","family":"Zipser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinal Cord Injury Center and Department of Neurology and Neurophysiology, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sybil","family":"Stacpoole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lindsay","family":"Tetreault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naomi","family":"Deakin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Antony","family":"Bateman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Derby Spine Centre, Royal Derby Hospital, Derby, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin M","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"unstructured":"Knowledge for healthcare | nhs england | workforce, training and education. 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