{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T14:14:12Z","timestamp":1788444852009,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780444800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":2,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Ministero della Salute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PNRR-MCT2-2023-12377646"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNRR-MCT2-2023-12377646"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["BMJ Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,27]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Approximately one-third of people with epilepsy (PWE) experience resistance to treatment, including pharmacological therapies, epilepsy surgery, vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) and dietary interventions such as the ketogenic diet (KD). Emerging evidence suggests that the gut microbiota may influence seizure susceptibility and treatment response through the microbiota-gut-brain axis, potentially contributing to treatment resistance. The MiCrobiota-gut-brain Axis in Resistant Epilepsy project investigates how gut microbial features and associated host epigenetic signatures affect clinical outcomes in PWE undergoing diverse treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods and analysis<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This is a multicentre, prospective, longitudinal study involving four clinical centres in Italy and one self-financing partner. Participants aged 3\u201350 years will be enrolled and stratified into four intervention cohorts: newly diagnosed drug-na\u00efve epilepsy scheduled to start anti-seizure medications, focal drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) undergoing epilepsy surgery, DRE receiving VNS, and DRE initiating KD. Clinical assessments (including body mass index calculation, self-reported monthly seizure count, dietary evaluation, quality of life scale and gastrointestinal symptoms scale), electroencephalography, MRI and biological sample collection (stool and blood) will be obtained at baseline and longitudinally at two or three timepoints over a 12-month observation period. Gut microbiota changes over time will be assessed via metagenomics (using 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing) and metaproteomics; the associated host DNA methylation profiles will be obtained from blood using Illumina EPIC arrays. Primary endpoints include identification of microbial or host methylation changes predictive of therapeutic response (ie, reduction from baseline in monthly seizure count) to the intervention. Data will be analysed using multivariate models and mixed-effect regression. Further, omics data and corresponding metadata will be integrated using multi-omics approaches to identify molecular signatures biomarkers predictive of treatment response and prognosis in PWE.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Ethics and dissemination<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study received ethical approval from the Research Ethic Board (Comitato Etico Territoriale Lombardia 3, ID 4896 \u2013 parere numero 4896_17.07.2024_N_bis). All participants or their legal guardians will provide written informed consent. Results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations or lay summaries targeting patient organisations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Trial registration number<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier\n                      <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" ext-link-type=\"clintrialgov\" xlink:href=\"NCT07010445\">NCT07010445<\/jats:ext-link>\n                      , registered on 2 May 2025.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2025-111607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T16:05:11Z","timestamp":1780502711000},"page":"e111607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Microbiota\u2013gut\u2013brain axis and treatment resistance in epilepsy: a multicentre prospective study protocol (CARE)"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"16","clinical-trial-number":[{"clinical-trial-number":"nct07010445","registry":"10.18810\/clinical-trials-gov"}],"author":[{"given":"Elisa","family":"Borghi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Universita degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Lombardy, Italy"},{"name":"Unit of Microbiology and Virology, ASST Santi Paolo e Carlo, Milan, Lombardy, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Tassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"'Claudio Munari' Epilepsy Surgery Centre, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milan, Lombardy, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"d\u2019Orsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neurology Unit- Epilepsy Center, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo, San Giovanni Rotondo, Apulia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Uzzau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Pivari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Childhood and Adolescence Neurology and Psychiatry Unit, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milan, Lombardy, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3405-6454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emilia","family":"Ricci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Child Neurology - 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