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Understanding its trajectory and contributing factors in Europe is essential for implementing effective public health interventions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To assess the trend of myopia prevalence in Europe over the last century, examine the role of education across generations, and project future rates of myopia-related visual impairment and blindness.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Design<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This observational study used data from population-based cohorts in Rotterdam, Netherlands, including the Rotterdam Study I\u2013IV, Generation R and Generation R Next.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Setting<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Population-based cohort studies conducted in Rotterdam, Netherlands.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Participants<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A total of 18 686 individuals born between 1900 and 2000, who underwent comprehensive ophthalmologic examinations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Exposures<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Participants were stratified by birth year (1900\u20131920, 1920\u20131940, 1940\u20131960, 1960\u20131980 and 1980\u20132000) and analysed for associations between birth year and myopia prevalence, axial length (AL) and spherical equivalent (SE). The potential mediating and moderating role of education was examined using a four-way decomposition approach. Prevalence of severe visual impairment caused by myopia-related complications was estimated for the Netherlands and Europe.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Main outcomes and measures<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The primary outcomes were the prevalence of myopia (SE \u2264\u22120.5 diopters (D)) and high myopia (SE \u2264\u22126 D), and the projected prevalence of severe visual impairment due to myopia up to 2075.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Myopia prevalence increased 2.5 times (from 22% to 56%) and high myopia 3.5 times (from 2% to 7%) between 1900 and 2000. Compared with individuals born in 1900\u20131920, those born in 1980\u20132000 had significantly higher odds of being myopic (OR 4.79 (95% CI 3.72 to 6.18)) and highly myopic (OR 3.30 (95% CI 1.79 to 6.21)). Mean AL increased by 0.9 mm in men and 0.8 mm in women over the century. Education significantly mediated the association between birth year and myopia. By 2075, the prevalence of severe visual impairment or blindness due to myopia in Europe is projected to rise from 0.12% in 2015 to 0.84%, causing an estimated 3.6 million severely visually impaired.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions and relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Myopia prevalence has risen dramatically in Europe, now affecting over 50% of young adults, with a corresponding increase in eye elongation over time. The burden of myopia-related visual impairment is expected to rise sharply as the population ages. By 2075, 0.84% of the European population is projected to be severely visually impaired or blind due to myopia-related complications. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted public health interventions.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjph-2024-002307","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]],"date-time":"2025-09-29T11:20:24Z","timestamp":1759144824000},"page":"e002307","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Trends in myopia prevalence and projected visual impairment in Western Europe: a pooled analysis of Dutch population-based cohorts (1900\u20132000)"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"3","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2689-5896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sander","family":"Kneepkens","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clair A","family":"Enthoven","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan Roelof","family":"Polling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Victor A","family":"de Vries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3042-8783","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"J Willem Lodewijk","family":"Tideman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Ophthalmology, Martini Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Caroline","family":"Klaver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1221","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30393-5","article-title":"Global causes of blindness and distance vision impairment 1990\u20132020: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Flaxman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.4.49","article-title":"The Complications of Myopia: A Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"61","author":"Haarman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42108-y","article-title":"The underestimated role of myopia in uncorrectable visual impairment in the United States","volume":"13","author":"Bullimore","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.2011.00884.x"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-015-0010-0"},{"key":"2026010703065896000_3.2.e002307.7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsumura S , Ching-Yu C , Saw S-M . 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