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This study investigated the association of widespread opportunistic prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing with SEP measures and quantified the extent to which multilevel measures of SEP contributed to the observed spatial variation in PSA testing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A population-based register study was conducted, encompassing 471\u2009335 men aged 40 years and older without a prior prostate cancer diagnosis residing in the Stockholm region in 2016. We used hierarchical Bayesian logistic regression models with spatial random effects to estimate the associations between PSA testing and SEP measures.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Men aged 70\u201379 in the highest income quartile had the highest proportion (35.2%, 95%\u2009CI 34.5% to 35.9%) of PSA testing in 2016. Adjusting for age and spatial variation, men with at least 12 years of education for having a PSA test had a 22% (95% CI 19% to 25%) higher odds compared with men with less than 9 years of education. For small area level variance in PSA testing, the highest proportion (42.0%) explained was seen for income.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings suggest a moderate association between opportunistic prostate cancer testing and SEP measures at the individual and area levels. The SEP measures at the individual and area levels substantially explained the spatial variation in PSA testing, where income was the strongest driver. Future strategies for prostate cancer testing should be aware of SEP differentials at both individual and area level to reduce socioeconomic inequities in incidence and mortality.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjph-2025-003493","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]],"date-time":"2026-02-17T13:40:25Z","timestamp":1771335625000},"page":"e003493","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multilevel associations between prostate cancer testing and socioeconomic position: a population-based register study from Stockholm, Sweden"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3987-2557","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Balram","family":"Rai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marta","family":"Rado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna Sara","family":"Oberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ralf","family":"Kuja-Halkola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark S","family":"Clements","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026021705401897000_4.1.e003493.1","unstructured":"WHO . 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