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However, much remains unknown about the factors that affect the efficacy and side effect profile of these agents. This review delves into the published literature that evaluates the intricate interplay between race, age, gender, and social determinants in shaping outcomes following ICB across solid tumors and hematologic malignancies. We examine the pivotal phase 2 and 3 trials to evaluate the demographics of participants and outcomes based on these variables, if reported. Most, but not all, trials reported some basic demographic information like age, sex, race, ethnicity, and\/or geographic area for enrollment. Clinically relevant biological markers that could affect ICB outcomes such as obesity or markers of social determinants of health were largely not reported. Trials were generally representative for men and women based on expected prevalence for a given malignancy, but often under-represented non-white participants and rarely enrolled patients from the global south. Subgroup analyses were conducted in many ICB trials for solid malignancies, but rarely conducted for hematologic malignancies. These analyses largely showed similar qualitative benefit across subgroups, but adverse events were rarely reported by subgroup. This review adds to our understanding of the populations that these clinical trials have studied and highlight the urgent need to redouble our efforts at increasing the diversity of the population in future ICB trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2024-010116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,26]],"date-time":"2024-10-26T08:05:29Z","timestamp":1729929929000},"page":"e010116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Impact of race, ethnicity, and social determinants on outcomes following immune checkpoint therapy"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"12","clinical-trial-number":[{"clinical-trial-number":"nct04435964","registry":"10.18810\/clinical-trials-gov"}],"author":[{"given":"Rahul K","family":"Nayak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meili","family":"Aiello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laneisha Marielis","family":"Maldonado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tarralyn Y","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary S","family":"Buchwald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radiation Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6679-9060","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andres","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.27211","article-title":"Analysis of Cancer Survival Associated With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors After Statistical Adjustment","volume":"5","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.604000","article-title":"Sexual Dimorphism in Innate Immunity: The Role of Sex Hormones and Epigenetics","volume":"11","author":"Shepherd","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Immunol"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2023.10.008"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-018-0221-5"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abg0928"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41541-024-00874-4","article-title":"Insights into vaccines for elderly individuals: from the impacts of immunosenescence to delivery strategies","volume":"9","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"NPJ Vaccines"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-32264-x","article-title":"Analysis of Racial\/Ethnic Representation in Select Basic and Applied Cancer Research Studies","volume":"8","author":"Guerrero","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.28168"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1003466"},{"key":"2025100308453751000_12.10.e010116.10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schachter J , Ribas A , Long GV , et al . 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