{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,26]],"date-time":"2026-06-26T15:45:41Z","timestamp":1782488741092,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,20]],"date-time":"2026-02-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771545600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":19,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Immunother Cancer"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Therapeutic vaccines include DNA, mRNA, protein-loaded antigen-presenting cell, synthetic long peptide (SLP) and recombinant virus platforms. Only two therapeutic vaccines for neoplastic disease were approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the past 40 years: sipuleucel-T, approved in 2010 for hormone-resistant metastatic prostate cancer and targeting prostate acid phosphatase; and zopapogene imadenovec, approved in 2025 for recurrent respiratory papillomatosis, a rare, non-malignant but often invalidating disease caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) type 6 or type 11. In the last decade, DNA, mRNA and SLP vaccines directed against mutation-derived neoantigens have shown strong immunogenicity for T cells and clinical activity with or without additional immune checkpoint inhibition. Vaccine monotherapy is effective in premalignant disorders caused by high-risk HPV16 and virus-negative colonic polyps. Treatment of bulky or recurrent\/metastatic (R\/M) disease requires combination with surgery and\/or chemotherapy or combination with an immune checkpoint inhibitor such as PD-1 blocker. In a recent study, adjuvant treatment with neoantigen-specific mRNA vaccine plus PD-1 blocker led to less melanoma recurrence than PD-1 blocker alone. In another randomized study, patients with R\/M HPV16+ head and neck cancer only benefited from the combination of HPV16-specific SLP vaccine and a PD-1 blocker if they had high pretreatment PD-L1 biomarker expression in cancer tissue. 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