{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,12]],"date-time":"2026-11-12T12:02:13Z","timestamp":1794484933367,"version":"4.9.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]],"date-time":"2024-07-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1720483200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Med Ethics"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,24]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Deepfakes are hyper-realistic but fabricated videos created with the use of artificial intelligence. In the context of psychotherapy, the first studies on using deepfake technology are emerging, with potential applications including grief counselling and treatment for sexual violence-related trauma. This paper explores these applications from the perspective of medical ethics and health law. First, we question whether deepfake therapy can truly constitute good care. Important risks are dangerous situations or \u2018triggers\u2019 to the patient during data collection for the creation of a deepfake, and when deepfake therapy is started, there are risks of overattachment and blurring of reality, which can complicate the grieving process or alter perceptions of perpetrators. Therapists must mitigate these risks, but more research is needed to evaluate deepfake therapy\u2019s efficacy before it can be used at all. Second, we address the implications for the person depicted in the deepfake. We describe how privacy and portrait law apply and argue that the legitimate interests of those receiving therapy should outweigh the interests of the depicted, as long as the therapy is an effective and \u2018last resort\u2019 treatment option, overseen by a therapist and the deepfakes are handled carefully. We suggest specific preventative measures that can be taken to protect the depicted person\u2019s privacy. Finally, we call for qualitative research with patients and therapists to explore dependencies and other unintended consequences. In conclusion, while deepfake therapy holds promise, the competing interests and ethicolegal complexities demand careful consideration and further investigation alongside the development and implementation of this technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/jme-2024-109985","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]],"date-time":"2024-07-09T17:18:15Z","timestamp":1720545495000},"page":"481-486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Promising for patients or deeply disturbing? The ethical and legal aspects of deepfake therapy"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"51","author":[{"given":"Saar","family":"Hoek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Law Centre for Health and Life, Faculty of Law, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzanne","family":"Metselaar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ethics, Law & Humanities, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corrette","family":"Ploem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Law Centre for Health and Life, Faculty of Law, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Ethics, Law & Humanities, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0655-0743","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marieke","family":"Bak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ethics, Law & Humanities, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Institute for History and Ethics of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munchen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025070713353004000_51.7.481.1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22215\/timreview\/1282"},{"key":"2025070713353004000_51.7.481.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13347-021-00459-2"},{"key":"2025070713353004000_51.7.481.3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews T , Kidd IJ . The ethics and epistemology of deepfakes. In: The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy and Media Ethics. 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