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In addition, visual disorders and retinal abnormalities are often present and can be identified by decreased visual acuity, abnormal spatial contrast sensitivity or even difficulty in complex visual task completion. Because of their early onset in patients with de novo Parkinson\u2019s disease, the anatomical retinal changes and electrophysiological modification could be valuable markers even at early stages of the disease. However, due to the concomitant occurrence of normal ageing, the relevance and specificity of these predictive values can be difficult to interpret. This review examines retinal dysfunction arising in Parkinson\u2019s disease. We highlight the electrophysiological delays and decreased amplitude in the electroretinography recorded in patients and animal models. We relate this to coexisting anatomical changes such as retinal nerve fibre layer and macular thinning, measured using optical coherence tomography, and show that functional measures are more consistent overall than optical coherence-measured structural changes. We review the underlying chemical changes seen with loss of retinal dopaminergic neurons and the effect of levodopa treatment on the retina in Parkinson\u2019s disease. Finally, we consider whether retinal abnormalities in Parkinson\u2019s disease could have a role as potential markers of poorer outcomes and help stratify patients at early stages of the disease. We emphasise that retinal measures can be valuable, accessible and cost-effective methods in the early evaluation of Parkinson\u2019s disease pathogenesis with potential for patient stratification.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2022-329342","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,17]],"date-time":"2023-02-17T18:21:39Z","timestamp":1676658099000},"page":"448-456","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Structural and functional changes in the retina in Parkinson\u2019s disease"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"94","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8345-3130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jordan N","family":"Alves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3231-1076","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Britta 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