{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T01:38:28Z","timestamp":1787017108729,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Occup Environ Med"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: To estimate exposures to cadmium (Cd) received by the United Kingdom population as a result of the dispersion of zinc Cd sulfide (ZnCdS) by the Ministry of Defence between 1953 and 1964, as a simulator of biological warfare agents.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Methods: A retrospective risk assessment study was carried out on the United Kingdom population during the period 1953\u201364. This determined land and air dispersion of ZnCdS over most of the United Kingdom, inhalation exposure of the United Kingdom population, soil contamination, and risks to personnel operating equipment that dispersed ZnCdS.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Results: About 4600 kg ZnCdS were dispersed from aircraft and ships, at times when the prevailing winds would allow large areas of the country to be covered. Cadmium released from 44 long range trials for which data are available, and extrapolated to a total of 76 trials to allow for trials with incomplete information, is about 1.2% of the estimated total release of Cd into the atmosphere over the same period. \u201cWorst case\u201d estimates are 10 \u03bcg Cd inhaled over 8 years, equivalent to Cd inhaled in an urban environment in 12\u2013100 days, or from smoking 100 cigarettes. A further 250 kg ZnCdS was dispersed from the land based sites, but significant soil contamination occurred only in limited areas, which were and have remained uninhabited. Of the four personnel involved in the dispersion procedures (who were probably exposed to much higher concentrations of Cd than people on the ground), none are suspected of having related illnesses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Conclusion: Exposure to Cd from dissemination of ZnCdS during the \u201ccold war\u201d should not have resulted in adverse health effects in the United Kingdom population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/oem.59.1.13","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,27]],"date-time":"2002-07-27T06:29:57Z","timestamp":1027751397000},"page":"13-17","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The risk to the United Kingdom population of zinc cadmium sulfide dispersion by the Ministry of Defence during the \u201ccold war\u201d"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"P J","family":"Elliott","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C J C","family":"Phillips","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B","family":"Clayton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P J","family":"Lachmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2002,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.1","unstructured":"National Research Council. Toxicological assessment of the Army's zinc cadmium sulfide dispersion tests. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997."},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.2","unstructured":"Titt RA. Assessment of fallout of fluorescent powder emitted from the `Stanford' type aerosol generator (programme 1\/54).1954. Porton: Ministry of Defence, 1954. (Field report No 353.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.3","unstructured":"Titt RA. Assessment of fallout of fluorescent powder emitted from the Stanford type aerosol dispenser (programme 1\/54). 1954. Porton: Ministry of Defence, 25 October 1954 (Field report No 405.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.4","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 13 July 1954. (Field report No 370.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.5","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 8 June 1954. (Field report No 371.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.6","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 13 July 1954. (Field report No 372.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.7","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 13 July 1954. (Field report 373.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.8","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 13 July 1954. (Field report No 382.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.9","unstructured":"Trouern-Trend K. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 6 August 1954. (Field report No 388.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.10","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 17\/53). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 24 August 1954. (Field report No 392.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.11","unstructured":"Titt RA. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 35\/56). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 5 May 1957. (Field report No 504.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.12","unstructured":"Wheeler CL. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 1\/57). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 2 January 1958. (Field report No 514.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.13","unstructured":"Titt RA. Determination of particle size in a cloud of FP produced by a Venturi dispenser mounted in a Valette aircraft (programme 19\/57).Porton: Ministry of Defence, 6 February 1958. (Field report No 516.)"},{"key":"2024052310571479000_59.1.13.14","unstructured":"Wheeler CL. The long distance travel of particulate clouds (programme 1\/57). Porton: Ministry of Defence, 5 February 1958. 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