{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T11:21:35Z","timestamp":1784546495852,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"855","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]],"date-time":"1997-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":852076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The causes of ischaemic stroke in young adults are many and diverse. Such patients usually require more extensive investigations in order to find an underlying cause than more elderly patients. It is important that a comprehensive search is made since many of the underlying disorders are treatable. Principal causes are extracranial arterial dissection, cardioembolism, premature atherosclerosis, haematological and immunological disorders and migraine. Drug abuse is becoming increasingly important but the risk of stroke in pregnancy remains unclear. Isolated angiitis of the central nervous system, heritable disorders of connective tissue and other genetically determined disorders (mitochondrial cytopathies, CA-DASIL) account for a small proportion of ischaemic strokes in the young. Management is probably best undertaken by a physician with a specialist interest and, if full investigation fails to elucidate a definite cause, the risk of future stoke is low.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.73.855.8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,12,29]],"date-time":"2008-12-29T21:49:00Z","timestamp":1230587340000},"page":"8-16","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Causes of ischaemic stroke in the young"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"73","author":[{"given":"P J","family":"Martin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery , Rice Lane, Liverpool L91AE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T P","family":"Enevoldson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery , Rice Lane, Liverpool L91AE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P R D","family":"Humphrey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery , Rice Lane, Liverpool L91AE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Stroke rehabilitation","volume":"2","author":"Department of Health","year":"1992","unstructured":"Department of Health. Stroke rehabilitation. Effective Health Care 1992; 2: 1-11.","journal-title":"Effective Health Care"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"74","article-title":"The economic approach to the stroke work-up","volume":"6","author":"Shriver, M.E.; Prockop, L.D.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Shriver ME, Prockop LD. The economic approach to the stroke work-up. Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg 1993; 6: 74-7.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurol Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref_3","article-title":"A prospective study of acute cerebrovscular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project","author":"Bamford, J.; Sandercock, P.; Dennis, M.; Bur, J.; Warlow, C.","year":"1981","unstructured":"Bamford J, Sandercock P, Dennis M, Bur J, Warlow C. A prospective study of acute cerebrovscular disease in the community: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project; 1981-86."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"16","article-title":"Incidence, case fatality rates and overall outcome at one year of cerebral infarction, primary intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhage","volume":"53","year":"1990","unstructured":"Incidence, case fatality rates and overall outcome at one year of cerebral infarction, primary intracerebral and subarachnoid haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 16-22.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.17.4.670","article-title":"Cerebral thromboembolism among young women and men in Denmark from 1977 to 1982","volume":"17","author":"Lidegaard, O.; Sol, M.; Anderson, M.V.N.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Lidegaard O, Sol M, Anderson MVN. Cerebral thromboembolism among young women and men in Denmark from 1977 to 1982. Stroke 1986; 17: 670-5.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"792","article-title":"A prospective study","volume-title":"of stroke in young adults in Cantabria, Spain. Stroke","volume":"24","author":"Leno, C.; Berciano, J.; Combarros, O.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Leno C, Berciano J, Combarros O, et al. A prospective study of stroke in young adults in Cantabria, Spain. Stroke 1993; 24: 792-5."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.300.6738.1485","article-title":"Symptomatic carotid ischaemic events: safest and most cost effective way of selecting patients for angiography, before carotid endarterectomy","volume":"300","author":"Hankey, G.J.; Warlow, C.P.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Hankey GJ, Warlow CP. Symptomatic carotid ischaemic events: safest and most cost effective way of selecting patients for angiography, before carotid endarterectomy. BMJ 1990; 300: 1485-91.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.72.844.72","article-title":"Classic diseases revisited: cerebral venous thrombosis","volume":"72","author":"Martin, P.J.; Enevoldson, T.P.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Martin PJ, Enevoldson TP. Classic diseases revisited: cerebral venous thrombosis. Postgrad Med 1996; 72: 72-6.","journal-title":"Postgrad Med"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.17.4.608","article-title":"Echocardiographic evaluation of young adults with non-hemorrhagic cerebral infarction","volume":"17","author":"Biller, J.; Johnson, M.; HP, Jr, Adams; Kerber, R.; Butler, M.; Toffol, G.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Biller J, Johnson M, Adams HP Jr, Kerber R, Butler M, Toffol G. Echocardiographic evaluation of young adults with non-hemorrhagic cerebral infarction. Stroke 1986; 17: 608-12.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1159\/000107875","article-title":"Transesophogeal echocardiography in the evaluation of young adults with ischemic stroke: promises and concerns","volume":"5","author":"HP, Jr, Adams; BB, Love","year":"1995","unstructured":"Adams HP Jr, Love BB. Transesophogeal echocardiography in the evaluation of young adults with ischemic stroke: promises and concerns. Cerebrovasc Dis 1995; 5: 323-7.","journal-title":"Cerebrovasc Dis"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.55.2.98","article-title":"Noninvasive diagnosis of internal carotid artery dissections","volume":"55","author":"Millges, W.; Ringelstein, E.B.; Leibold, M.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Millges W, Ringelstein EB, Leibold M. Noninvasive diagnosis of internal carotid artery dissections. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 98-104.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.57.12.1466","article-title":"A comparison of magnetic resonance angiography, duplex ultrasound and digital subtraction angiography in the assessment of extracranial internal carotid artery stenosis","volume":"57","author":"Young, G.; Humphrey, P.R.D.; Shaw, M.D.M.; Smith, E.T.S.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Young G, Humphrey PRD, Shaw MDM, Smith ETS. A comparison of magnetic resonance angiography, duplex ultrasound and digital subtraction angiography in the assessment of extracranial internal carotid artery stenosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994; 57: 1466 - 78.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"593","article-title":"Angiography in patients with occlusive cerebrovascular disease: views of a stroke neurologist and neuroradiologist","volume":"12","author":"Caplan, L.R.; Wolpert, S.M.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Caplan LR, Wolpert SM. Angiography in patients with occlusive cerebrovascular disease: views of a stroke neurologist and neuroradiologist. Am J Neuroradiol 1991; 12: 593-601.","journal-title":"Am J Neuroradiol"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2214\/ajr.155.1.2112839","article-title":"Intracranial aneurysms: evaluation by magnetic resonance angiography","volume":"155","author":"Ross, J.S.; Masaryk, T.J.; Modic, M.T.; Ruggier, P.M.; Haacke, E.M.; Selman, W.K.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Ross JS, Masaryk TJ, Modic MT, Ruggier PM, Haacke EM, Selman WK. Intracranial aneurysms: evaluation by magnetic resonance angiography. AJR 1990; 155: 159-65.","journal-title":"AJR"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.59.3.225","article-title":"Imaging blood vessels of the head and neck","volume":"59","author":"Sellar, R.J.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Sellar RJ. Imaging blood vessels of the head and neck. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiaty 1995; 59: 225-37.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiaty"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.42.2.289","article-title":"Type and extent of hemispheric brain infarction and clinical outcome in early and delayed middle cerebral artery occlusion","volume":"42","author":"Ringelstein, E.B.; Biniek, R.; Weiller, C.; Ammeling, B.; Nolte, P.N.; Thron, A.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Ringelstein EB, Biniek R, Weiller C, Ammeling B, Nolte PN, Thron A. Type and extent of hemispheric brain infarction and clinical outcome in early and delayed middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neurology 1992; 42: 289-98.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.8.1246","article-title":"Transcranial Doppler detection of circulating cerebral emboli","volume":"24","author":"Markus, H.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Markus H. Transcranial Doppler detection of circulating cerebral emboli. Stroke 1993; 24: 1246 - 50.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.22.6.740","article-title":"Detection of paradoxical echo-contrast embolization by transcranial Doppler ultrasound","volume":"22","author":"Teague, S.M.; Sharma, M.K.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Teague SM, Sharma MK. Detection of paradoxical echo-contrast embolization by transcranial Doppler ultrasound. Stroke 1991; 22: 740-5.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)92693-X","article-title":"Alpha-l-antitrypsin deficiency in intracranial aneurysms and cervical artery dissection","volume":"343","author":"Schievink, W.I.; Prakash, U.B.S.; Piepgras, D.G.; Mokri, B.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Schievink WI, Prakash UBS, Piepgras DG, Mokri B. Alpha-l-antitrypsin deficiency in intracranial aneurysms and cervical artery dissection. Lancet 1994; 343: 452-3.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1443","article-title":"Incidence of internal carotid artery dissection in the community of Dijon","volume":"58","author":"Giroud, M.; Fayolle, H.; Andre, N.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Giroud M, Fayolle H, Andre N, et al. Incidence of internal carotid artery dissection in the community of Dijon. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 1443.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.54.7.576","article-title":"Cerebral infarction in young people. A study of 148 patients with early cerebral angiography","volume":"54","author":"Lisovoski, F.; Rousseaux, P.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Lisovoski F, Rousseaux P. Cerebral infarction in young people. A study of 148 patients with early cerebral angiography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 576-9.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-8619(18)30236-6","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in patients under age 45","volume":"10","author":"Bogousslavsky, J.; Pierre, P.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Bogousslavsky J, Pierre P. Ischemic stroke in patients under age 45. Neurol Clin 1992; 10: 113-24.","journal-title":"Neurol Clin"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.26.2.235","article-title":"Time course of symptoms in extracranial carotid artery dissections. A series of 80 patients","volume":"26","author":"Biousse, V.; D'Aglejan-Chatillon, J.; Touboul, P.-J.; Amarenco, P.; Bousser, M.-G.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Biousse V, D'Aglejan-Chatillon J, Touboul P-J, Amarenco P, Bousser M-G. Time course of symptoms in extracranial carotid artery dissections. A series of 80 patients. Stroke 1995; 26: 235-9.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199402103300604","article-title":"Recurrent spontaneous cervical artery dissection","volume":"330","author":"Schievink, W.I.; Mokri, B.; O'Fallon, W.M.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Schievink WI, Mokri B, O'Fallon WM. Recurrent spontaneous cervical artery dissection. N EnglJ Med 1994; 330: 393-7.","journal-title":"N EnglJ Med"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.53.5.379","article-title":"Dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery: the role of Doppler\/duplex studies and conservative mangement","volume":"53","author":"Eljamel, M.S.M.; Humphrey, P.R.D.; Shaw, M.D.M.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Eljamel MSM, Humphrey PRD, Shaw MDM. Dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery: the role of Doppler\/duplex studies and conservative mangement. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 379-83.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.6.815","article-title":"Noninvasive detection of vertebral artery dissection","volume":"24","author":"Hoffman, M.; Sacco, R.L.; Chan, S.; Mohr, J.P.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Hoffman M, Sacco RL, Chan S, Mohr JP. Noninvasive detection of vertebral artery dissection. Stroke 1993; 24: 815-9.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410190204","article-title":"Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery","volume":"19","author":"Mokoi, B.; Sundt, T.M.; Houser, O.W.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Mokoi B, Sundt TM, Houser OW, Piepgras DG. Spontaneous dissection of the cervical internal carotid artery. Ann Neurol 1986; 19: 126-8.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"256","article-title":"Vertebrobasilar occlusive disease: spontaneous dissection of extracranial and intracranial posterior circulation arteries","volume":"2","author":"Caplan, L.; Tettenborn, B.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Caplan L, Tettenborn B. Vertebrobasilar occlusive disease: spontaneous dissection of extracranial and intracranial posterior circulation arteries. Cerebrovasc Dis 1992; 2: 256-65.","journal-title":"Cerebrovasc Dis"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1986.00520080041017","article-title":"Nonhemorrhagic cerebral infarction in young adults","volume":"43","author":"HP, Jr, Adams; MJ, Butler; J, Biller; J, Toffol","year":"1986","unstructured":"Adams HP Jr, Butler MJ, Biller J, Toffol J. Nonhemorrhagic cerebral infarction in young adults. Arch Neurol 1986; 43: 793-6.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1995.00540290081021","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in young adults: experience in 329 patients enrolled in the Iowa Registry of Stroke in Young Adults","volume":"52","author":"HP, Jr, Adams; J, Kappelle; J, Biller","year":"1995","unstructured":"Adams HP Jr, Kappelle J, Biller J, et al. Ischemic stroke in young adults: experience in 329 patients enrolled in the Iowa Registry of Stroke in Young Adults. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 491-5.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"17","article-title":"Incidence and size of patent foramen ovale during the first 10 decades of life: an autopsy study of 965 normal hearts","volume-title":"Mayo Clin Proc","volume":"59","author":"Hagen, P.T.; Scholz, D.G.; Edwards, W.D.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Hagen PT, Scholz DG, Edwards WD. Incidence and size of patent foramen ovale during the first 10 decades of life: an autopsy study of 965 normal hearts. Mayo Clin Proc 1984; 59: 17 - 20."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.3.362","article-title":"A prospective study of cerebral ischaemia in the young: analysis of pathogenic determinants","volume":"24","author":"Carolei, A.; Marini, C.; Ferranti, E.; Frontoni, M.; Prencipe, M.; C, Fieschi; the National Research Council Study Group","year":"1993","unstructured":"Carolei A, Marini C, Ferranti E, Frontoni M, Prencipe M, Fieschi C and the National Research Council Study Group. A prospective study of cerebral ischaemia in the young: analysis of pathogenic determinants. Stroke 1993; 24: 362-7.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.21.3.382","article-title":"Stroke in young adults","volume":"21","author":"Bevan, H.; Sharma, K.; Bradley, W.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Bevan H, Sharma K, Bradley W. Stroke in young adults. Stroke 1990; 21: 382-6.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.53.3.464","article-title":"Mitral valve prolapse in one hundred presumably healthy young females","volume":"53","author":"Markiewicz, W.; Stoner, J.; London, E.; Hunt, S.A.; Copp, R.L.","year":"1976","unstructured":"Markiewicz W, Stoner J, London E, Hunt SA, Copp RL. Mitral valve prolapse in one hundred presumably healthy young females. Circulation 1976; 53: 464-73.","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1148","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198805053181802","article-title":"Prevalence of patent foramen ovale in patients with strokes","volume":"318","author":"Lechat, P.; Mas, J.L.; Lescault, G.","year":"1988","unstructured":"Lechat P, Mas JL, Lescault G, et al. Prevalence of patent foramen ovale in patients with strokes. N EnglJ Med 1988; 318: 1148-52.","journal-title":"N EnglJ Med"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1085","article-title":"Cardiogenic stroke","volume-title":"diagnosis and management","author":"Barnett, H.J.M.","year":"1986","unstructured":"Gates PC, Barnett HJM, Silver MD. Cardiogenic stroke. In: Barnett HJM, Mohr JP, Stein BM, Yatsu FM, eds. Stroke: pathophysiology, diagnosis and management. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1986; pp 1085-109."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.13.4.429","article-title":"Mitral valve prolapse and cerebral infarction","volume":"13","author":"Hart, R.G.; Easton, J.D.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Hart RG, Easton JD. Mitral valve prolapse and cerebral infarction. Stroke 1982; 13: 429-31.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(90)93113-4","article-title":"Echocardiographic evaluation of patients with clinically suspected arterial emboli","volume":"336","author":"Hofman, T.; Kasper, W.; Meinertz, T.; Geibel, A.; Just, H.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Hofman T, Kasper W, Meinertz T, Geibel A, Just H. Echocardiographic evaluation of patients with clinically suspected arterial emboli. Lancet 1990; 336: 1421-4.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1016\/0735-1097(91)90539-L","article-title":"Atrial septal aneurysm and stroke. A transesophageal echocardiographic study","volume":"18","author":"Pearson, A.C.; Nagelhoot, D.; Castello, R.; Gomez, C.R.; Labovitz, A.J.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Pearson AC, Nagelhoot D, Castello R, Gomez CR, Labovitz AJ. Atrial septal aneurysm and stroke. A transesophageal echocardiographic study. JAm Coil Cardiol 1991; 18: 1223 - 9.","journal-title":"JAm Coil Cardiol"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.7.1020","article-title":"Comparison of diagnostic techniques for the detection of a patent foramen ovale in stroke patients","volume":"24","author":"DiTullio, M.; Sacco, R.L.; Venketa, N.; Sherman, D.; Mohr, J.P.; Homma, S.","year":"1993","unstructured":"DiTullio M, Sacco RL, Venketa N, Sherman D, Mohr JP, Homma S. Comparison of diagnostic techniques for the detection of a patent foramen ovale in stroke patients. Stroke 1993; 24: 1020-4.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.15.5.779","article-title":"Cerebral Embolism Study Group. Immediate anticoagulation of embolic stroke: brain haemorrhage and management options","volume":"15","year":"1984","unstructured":"Cerebral Embolism Study Group. Immediate anticoagulation of embolic stroke: brain haemorrhage and management options. Stroke 1984; 15: 779-89.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1987.00520170009012","article-title":"Ischemic stroke in adults younger than 30 years of age","volume":"44","author":"Bogousslavsky, J.; Regli, F.","year":"1987","unstructured":"Bogousslavsky J, Regli F. Ischemic stroke in adults younger than 30 years of age. Arch Neurol 1987; 44: 479-82.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(95)92407-8","article-title":"Prospective study of serum total homocysteine concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged British men","volume":"346","author":"Perry, I.J.; Refsum, H.; Morris, R.W.; Ebrahim, S.B.; Ueland, P.M.; Shaper, A.G.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Perry IJ, Refsum H, Morris RW, Ebrahim SB, Ueland PM, Shaper AG. Prospective study of serum total homocysteine concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged British men. Lancet 1995; 346: 1395-8.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199502023320502","article-title":"Association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotid artery stenosis","volume":"332","author":"Selhub, J.; Jacques, P.F.; Bostom, A.G.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Selhub J, Jacques PF, Bostom AG, et al. Association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotid artery stenosis. NEnglJMed 1995; 332: 286-91.","journal-title":"NEnglJMed"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.25.10.1924","article-title":"A prospective study of plasma homocyst(e)ine and risk of stroke","volume":"25","author":"Verhoef, P.; Hennekens, C.H.; Malinow, R.; Kok, F.J.; Willett, W.C.; Stampfer, M.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Verhoef P, Hennekens CH, Malinow R, Kok FJ, Willett WC, Stampfer M. A prospective study of plasma homocyst(e)ine and risk of stroke. Stroke 1994; 25: 1924-30.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199502023320511","article-title":"Can lowering homocysteine levels reduce cardiovascular risk?","volume":"332","author":"Stampfer, M.J.; Malinow, M.R.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Stampfer MJ, Malinow MR. Can lowering homocysteine levels reduce cardiovascular risk? N EnglJ Med 1995; 332: 328-9.","journal-title":"N EnglJ Med"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1989.00520400109029","article-title":"The effect of radiation on carotid arteries","volume":"46","author":"Murros, K.E.; Toole, J.F.","year":"1989","unstructured":"Murros KE, Toole JF. The effect of radiation on carotid arteries. Arch Neurol 1989; 46: 449-55.","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.22.8.1068","article-title":"Stroke from other etiologies masquerading as migraine stroke","volume":"22","author":"Shuaib, A.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Shuaib A. Stroke from other etiologies masquerading as migraine stroke. Stroke 1991; 22: 1068-74.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/116.1.187","article-title":"Ischaemiainduced (symptomatic) migraine attacks may be more frequent than migraine-induced insults","volume":"116","author":"Olesen, J.; Friberg, L.; Olsen, T.S.; Andersen, A.R.; Lassen, N.A.; Hansen, P.E.; Karle, A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Olesen J, Friberg L, Olsen TS, Andersen AR, Lassen NA, Hansen PE, Karle A. Ischaemiainduced (symptomatic) migraine attacks may be more frequent than migraine-induced insults. Brain 1993; 116: 187-202.","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"27","article-title":"Classification and diagnostic criteria for headache disorders, cranial neuralgias, and facial pain","volume":"8","author":"Society, International Headache","year":"1988","unstructured":"International Headache Society. Classification and diagnostic criteria for headache disorders, cranial neuralgias, and facial pain. Cephalalgia 1988; 8: 27.","journal-title":"Cephalalgia"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.12.2473","article-title":"Migraine and migrainous stroke: risk factors and prognosis","volume":"43","author":"Rothrock, J.; North, J.; Madden, K.; Lyden, P.; Fleck, P.; Dittrich, H.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Rothrock J, North J, Madden K, Lyden P, Fleck P, Dittrich H. Migraine and migrainous stroke: risk factors and prognosis. Neurology 1993; 43: 2473-6.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.307.6899.289","article-title":"Migraine and risk of ischaemic stroke: a case control study","volume":"307","author":"Tzourio, C.; Iglesias, S.; Hubert, J.-B.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Tzourio C, Iglesias S, Hubert J-B, et al. Migraine and risk of ischaemic stroke: a case control study. BMJ 1993; 307: 289 - 92.","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"252","article-title":"The young stroke","volume":"20","author":"Warlow, C.","year":"1979","unstructured":"Warlow C. The young stroke. Br J Hosp Med 1979; 20: 252-9.","journal-title":"Br J Hosp Med"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00313888","article-title":"The causes of stroke in the young","volume":"232","author":"Hilton-Jones, D.; Warlow, C.P.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Hilton-Jones D, Warlow CP. The causes of stroke in the young. J Neurol 1985; 232: 137-43.","journal-title":"J Neurol"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.41.9.1358","article-title":"Occurrence of stroke associated with use\/abuse of drugs","volume":"41","author":"Sloan, M.A.; Kittner, S.J.; Rigamomti, D.; Price, T.R.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Sloan MA, Kittner SJ, Rigamomti D, Price TR. Occurrence of stroke associated with use\/abuse of drugs. Neurology 1991; 41: 1358-64.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"299","article-title":"- a clinical approach","author":"ischaemia. In, Caplan L.R.Nonatherosclerotic","year":"1993","unstructured":"Caplan LR. Nonatherosclerotic ischaemia. In: Caplan LR. Stroke - a clinical approach. Boston: Butterworth Heinemann, 1993; pp 299-348."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.56.5.433","article-title":"Coagulation abnormalities and cerebral infarction","volume":"56","author":"Greaves, M.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Greaves M. Coagulation abnormalities and cerebral infarction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56: 433-9.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1642558","article-title":"The frequency of type 1 heterozygous protein C deficiency in 141 unrelated young patients with venous thrombosis","volume":"59","author":"Gladson, C.L.; Sharrer, I.; Hach, V.; Beck, K.H.; Griffin, J.H.","year":"1988","unstructured":"Gladson CL, Sharrer I, Hach V, Beck KH, Griffin JH. The frequency of type 1 heterozygous protein C deficiency in 141 unrelated young patients with venous thrombosis. Thromb Haemost 1988; 59: 18-22.","journal-title":"Thromb Haemost"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1097\/00019052-199502000-00009","article-title":"Inflammatory vascular disorders: diagnosis and treatment in ischemic stroke","volume":"8","author":"Futrell, N.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Futrell N. Inflammatory vascular disorders: diagnosis and treatment in ischemic stroke. Curr Opin Neurol 1995; 8: 55-61.","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurol"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.43.10.2069","article-title":"The Antiphospholipid Antibodies Group. Anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for first ischemic stroke","volume":"43","year":"1993","unstructured":"The Antiphospholipid Antibodies Group. Anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for first ischemic stroke. Neurology 1993; 43: 2069-73.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"397","article-title":"Vasculitis in the antiphospholipid syndrome: culprit or consort?","volume":"21","author":"Lie, J.T.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Lie JT. Vasculitis in the antiphospholipid syndrome: culprit or consort? J Rheumatol 1994; 21: 397-8.","journal-title":"J Rheumatol"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410230411","article-title":"Clinical and neuropathological findings in systemic lupus erythematosus. The role of vasculitis, heart emboli and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura","volume":"23","year":"1988","unstructured":"Devinsky O, Petito CK, Alonso DR. Clinical and neuropathological findings in systemic lupus erythematosus. The role of vasculitis, heart emboli and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Ann Neurol 1988; 23: 380-4.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410140202","article-title":"Neurological complications ofvasculitis","volume":"14","author":"Moore, P.M.; Cupps, T.R.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Moore PM, Cupps TR. Neurological complications ofvasculitis. Ann Neurol 1983; 14: 155 - 67.","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1985.62.4.0475","article-title":"Neurological manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): experience at UCSF and review of the literature","volume":"62","author":"Levy, R.M.; Bredesen, B.E.; Rosenblum, M.L.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Levy RM, Bredesen BE, Rosenblum ML. Neurological manifestations of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS): experience at UCSF and review of the literature. J Neurosurg 1985; 62: 475-95.","journal-title":"J Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1159\/000108809","article-title":"Isolated angiitis\/angiopathy of the central nervous system","volume":"1","author":"Hankey, G.J.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Hankey GJ. Isolated angiitis\/angiopathy of the central nervous system. Cerebrovasc Dis 1991; 1: 2-15.","journal-title":"Cerebrovasc Dis"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.44.7.1221","article-title":"Serial angiography in isolated angiitis of the central nervous system","volume":"44","author":"Alhalabi, M.; Moore, P.M.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Alhalabi M, Moore PM. Serial angiography in isolated angiitis of the central nervous system. Neurology 1994; 44: 1221-6.","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3055","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1985.03360210071032","article-title":"The incidence of stroke among pregnant women in Rochester, Minn, 1955-1979","volume":"254","author":"Wiebers, D.O.; Whisnant, J.P.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Wiebers DO, Whisnant JP. The incidence of stroke among pregnant women in Rochester, Minn, 1955-1979. JAMA 1985; 254: 3055-7.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.58.2.129","article-title":"Stroke in pregnancy and the puerperium: what magnitude of risk?","volume":"58","author":"Grosset, D.G.; Ebrahim, S.; Bone, I.; Warlow, C.","year":"1995","unstructured":"Grosset DG, Ebrahim S, Bone I, Warlow C. Stroke in pregnancy and the puerperium: what magnitude of risk? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 58: 129-31.","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S0733-8619(18)30235-4","article-title":"Cerebral venous thrombosis","volume":"10","author":"Ameri, A.; Bousser, M.-G.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Ameri A, Bousser M-G. Cerebral venous thrombosis. Neurol Clin 1992; 10: 87-111.","journal-title":"Neurol Clin"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.22.10.1297","article-title":"Autosomal dominant syndrome with stroke-like episodes and leukoencephalopathy","volume":"22","author":"Tournier-Lasserve, E.; Iba-Zizen, M.-T.; Romero, N.; Bousser, M.-G.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Tournier-Lasserve E, Iba-Zizen M-T, Romero N, Bousser M-G. Autosomal dominant syndrome with stroke-like episodes and leukoencephalopathy. Stroke 1991; 22: 1297-302.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.25.4.889","article-title":"Neurovascular complications of heritable connective tissue disorders","volume":"25","author":"Schievink, W.I.; Michels, V.; Piepgras, D.G.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Schievink WI, Michels V, Piepgras DG. Neurovascular complications of heritable connective tissue disorders. Stroke 1994; 25: 889-903.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-510X(82)90244-1","article-title":"The cause and prognosis of strokes in people under 50 years","volume":"53","author":"Marshall, J.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Marshall J. The cause and prognosis of strokes in people under 50 years. J Neurol Sci 1982; 53: 473-88.","journal-title":"J Neurol Sci"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1991.tb04962.x","article-title":"Etiopathogenesis and prognosis of cerebral ischaemia in young adults. A survey of 155 treated patients","volume":"84","author":"Lanzino, G.; Andreoli, L.G.; Di Pasquale, G.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Lanzino G, Andreoli LG, Di Pasquale G, et al. Etiopathogenesis and prognosis of cerebral ischaemia in young adults. A survey of 155 treated patients. Acta Neurol Scand 1991; 84: 321-5.","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Scand"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1977.tb05632.x","article-title":"The prognosis of ischaemic stroke in young adults","volume":"55","author":"Hindfelt, B.; Nilsson, O.","year":"1977","unstructured":"Hindfelt B, Nilsson O. The prognosis of ischaemic stroke in young adults. Acta Neurol Scand 1977; 55: 123-30.","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Scand"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.25.7.1360","article-title":"Prognosis of young adults with ischemic stroke. A long-term follow-up study assessing recurrent vascular events and functional outcome in the Iowa registry of stroke in young adults","volume":"25","author":"Kappelle, L.J.; HP, Jr, Adams; Heffner, N.L.; Tomer, J.C.; Gomez, F.; Biller, J.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Kappelle LJ, Adams HP Jr, Heffner NL, Tomer JC, Gomez F, Biller J. Prognosis of young adults with ischemic stroke. A long-term follow-up study assessing recurrent vascular events and functional outcome in the Iowa registry of stroke in young adults. Stroke 1994; 25: 1360-5.","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"101","article-title":"Ischaemic cerebral infarction in young adults","volume":"12","author":"Frederico, F.; Calvario, T.; Di Turi, N.; Paradiso, F.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Frederico F, Calvario T, Di Turi N, Paradiso F. Ischaemic cerebral infarction in young adults. Acta Neurol Ital 1990; 12: 101-8.","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Ital"},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"119","article-title":"Audit of hospital coding and investigation of patients with stroke under","volume":"60","author":"Pollock, S.S.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Pollock SS. Audit of hospital coding and investigation of patients with stroke under Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 119.","journal-title":"Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Postgraduate Medical Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pmj\/article-pdf\/73\/855\/8\/50220742\/postgradmedj-73-8.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pmj\/article-pdf\/73\/855\/8\/50220742\/postgradmedj-73-8.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,11]],"date-time":"2023-05-11T05:48:43Z","timestamp":1683784123000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pmj\/article\/73\/855\/8\/7042140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"855","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/pgmj.73.855.8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0032-5473","1469-0756"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0032-5473","type":"print"},{"value":"1469-0756","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[1997,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[1997,1,1]]}}}