{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T18:18:31Z","timestamp":1783361911725,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"BMJ","issue":"Suppl 5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":4,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["bmj.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Trauma Surg Acute Care Open"],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,8]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Acute extremity compartment syndrome (CS) is a serious medical complication triggered by factors such as trauma, vascular injury, or prolonged compression, resulting in elevated intracompartmental pressure (ICP) and tissue ischemia. Diagnosis remains challenging, mainly relying on the subjective evaluation of clinical symptoms. Different animal models have been used to study pathophysiology and evaluate diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. The aim of this review is to summarize and compare different animal CS models to provide insight for the development of more authentic and clinically relevant CS model. A comprehensive search of two databases was conducted. English-language animal studies focusing on CS were included. Human studies, non-acute extremity CS, and review papers were excluded. Data extraction and analysis focused on animal species, CS models, and clinically relevant assessment methods of CS. After screening, 90 studies met the inclusion criteria. Small animal (n=36, 40%) and canine models (n=31, 34.4%) were the most used animal species. A fluid infusion model (n=48, 53.3%) was the predominant induction method, followed by the ischemia-reperfusion (n=29, 32.2%) and the internal\/external mechanical pressure models. Five studies used a combination CS model to achieve a more comprehensive representation of the clinical pathophysiology. Various diagnostic modalities were employed; ICP measurement (n=74, 82.2%) and evaluation of tissue oxygenation (n=10, 11.1%) were the most frequent device-based assessments. Biomarkers assessing muscle cell damage (n=15, 16.7%), antioxidant status (n=18, 20%) and inflammation (n=16, 17.8%) were analyzed as well as physical examination (n=12, 13.3%) and neuromuscular testing (n=10, 11.1%). There are a variety of validated animal species models, which can be considered depending on the research objectives. This review helps researchers evaluate model strengths and drawbacks before deciding on an experimental design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1136\/tsaco-2025-001754","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T13:45:13Z","timestamp":1757079913000},"page":"e001754","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Researcher\u2019s guide to preclinical animal models of acute extremity compartment syndrome"],"prefix":"10.1136","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-9116-2838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catharina Constanze","family":"Gaeth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CRT 4, US Army Institute of Surgical Research Burn Center, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Reconstructive Surgery, Hand Surgery, Plastic Surgery and Burn Medicine, German Armed Forces Central Hospital, Koblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert Joseph","family":"Moritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CRT 4, US Army Institute of Surgical Research Burn Center, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Max","family":"Seidelmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Reconstructive Surgery, Hand Surgery, Plastic Surgery and Burn Medicine, German Armed Forces Central Hospital, Koblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel Joseph","family":"Cognetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CRT 4, US Army Institute of Surgical Research Burn Center, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA"},{"name":"Orthopedic surgery, Brooke Army Medical Center, Joint Base San Antonio Fort Sam Houston, Texas, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"239","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.1","unstructured":"Torlincasi AM , Waseem M . Acute compartment syndrome. [updated 2023 jan 16]. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, 16 January 2024. Available: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK448124\/"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0b013e31816086b1"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0b013e3181607750"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merle GHE . Pathophysiology of compartment syndrome, in compartment syndrome: a guide to diagnosis and management. 2019.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-22331-1_3"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1007\/s00068-013-0329-8","article-title":"Extremity compartment syndrome and fasciotomy: a literature review","volume":"39","author":"Fry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2005.01.007"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.7","unstructured":"Fleischhacker E , Helfen T . Akutes kompartmentsyndrom des unterschenkels. In: Orthop\u00e4die Und Unfallchirurgie. Knie, 2022."},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2017.05.012","article-title":"Extremity compartment syndrome following blunt trauma: a level I trauma center\u2019s 5-year experience","volume":"217","author":"Zuchelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Surg Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e108","DOI":"10.5435\/JAAOS-D-19-00270","article-title":"Management of Acute Compartment Syndrome","volume":"28","author":"Osborn","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Am Acad Orthop Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2019.1050","article-title":"Diagnostic Modalities for Acute Compartment Syndrome of the Extremities: A Systematic Review","volume":"154","author":"Mortensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1302\/1863-2548.12.180049","article-title":"Early morbidity associated with fasciotomies for acute compartment syndrome in children","volume":"12","author":"Lim","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Child Orthop"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/OI9.0000000000000163","article-title":"Animal models in compartment syndrome: a review of existing literature","volume":"5","author":"O\u2019Neill","year":"2022","journal-title":"OTA Int"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.L.01419"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tec.2010.0699"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-012-2456-7"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.17","unstructured":"Matsen FA , Mayo KA , Sheridan GW , Krugmire RB . Continuous monitoring of intramuscular pressure and its application to clinical compartmental syndromes. Bibl Anat 1977:112\u20135."},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.18","first-page":"40","article-title":"Inhibition of the compartment syndrome by the ablation of free radical-mediated reperfusion injury","volume":"108","author":"Perler","year":"1990","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2011.10.012"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s12891-024-07187-6","article-title":"Establishment and pathophysiological evaluation of a novel model of acute compartment syndrome in rats","volume":"25","author":"Dong","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Musculoskelet Disord"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1186\/s13287-023-03530-1","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles derived from human ESC-MSCs target macrophage and promote anti-inflammation process, angiogenesis, and functional recovery in ACS-induced severe skeletal muscle injury","volume":"14","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Stem Cell Res Ther"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1503\/cjs.048309"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e263","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0000000000000097","article-title":"The severity of microvascular dysfunction due to compartment syndrome is diminished by the systemic application of CO-releasing molecule-3","volume":"28","author":"Lawendy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Orthop Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.97B4.34965","article-title":"Contribution of inflammation to cellular injury in compartment syndrome in an experimental rodent model","volume":"97-B","author":"Lawendy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bone Joint J"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.98B8.36325","article-title":"Compartment syndrome causes systemic inflammation in a rat","volume":"98-B","author":"Lawendy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bone Joint J"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-45209-w","article-title":"Electrical impedance myography for the early detection of muscle ischemia secondary to compartment syndrome: a study in a rat model","volume":"13","author":"Lechtig","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0b013e3181f2247e"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2017.08.051","article-title":"Phonomyography as a non-invasive continuous monitoring technique for muscle ischemia in an experimental model of acute compartment syndrome","volume":"48","author":"Martinez","year":"2017","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics11040586","article-title":"Utilizing Dynamic Phosphorous-31 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy for the Early Detection of Acute Compartment Syndrome: A Pilot Study on Rats","volume":"11","author":"Ohta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Diagnostics (Basel)"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.24461","article-title":"Characterization of a compartment syndrome-like injury model","volume":"51","author":"Oyster","year":"2015","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tec.2021.0205","article-title":"Development of a Rat Model of Fasciotomy Treatment for Compartment Syndrome","volume":"28","author":"Poteracki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Tissue Eng Part C Methods"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2009.03.037","article-title":"The effect of a hypobaric, hypoxic environment on acute skeletal muscle edema after ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats","volume":"160","author":"Ritenour","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Surg Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1097\/00063110-199712000-00002","article-title":"Intramuscular partial oxygen tension monitoring in compartment syndrome--an experimental study","volume":"4","author":"Seekamp","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur J Emerg Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0b013e318217879a"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.55730\/1300-0144.5552","article-title":"Early assessment of extremity compartment syndrome by biochemical markers in a rat model","volume":"53","author":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m","year":"2023","journal-title":"Turk J Med Sci"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usz232","article-title":"N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine Reduces Fibrosis and Improves Muscle Function After Acute Compartment Syndrome Injury","volume":"185","author":"Yosef","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/jbt.23228","article-title":"The mechanism of the Nfe2l2\/Hmox1 signaling pathway in ferroptosis regulation in acute compartment syndrome","volume":"37","author":"Zheng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Biochem Mol Toxicol"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2014.03.018","article-title":"Age-dependent changes cooperatively impact skeletal muscle regeneration after compartment syndrome injury","volume":"184","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am J Pathol"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02682252","article-title":"Effect of early fasciotomy on intramuscular pressure and electrical excitability of muscles in experimental compartment syndrome","volume":"130","author":"Babinkov","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bull Exp Biol Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4804(77)90152-4"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2021.11.014","article-title":"Protective effects of Hirudin against compartment syndrome in rabbits through the activation of Nrf2\/HO-1","volume":"53","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1097\/00006534-198810000-00021","article-title":"The role of magnetic resonance imaging in assessing elevated intracompartmental pressure in the rabbit hindlimb","volume":"82","author":"Greenberg","year":"1988","journal-title":"Plast Reconstr Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199407000-00005"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199905000-00016","article-title":"Selective type III phosphodiesterase inhibition prevents elevated compartment pressure after ischemia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"46","author":"Hakaim","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1166\/mex.2020.1713","article-title":"Study on the function of self-polymerizing peptide nanofiber material combined with nerve growth factor-mediated RNA repair for nerve injury treatment in rabbits with the osteofascial compartment syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"mat express"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-197511000-00006","article-title":"An animal model of the compartmental syndrome","volume":"1975","author":"Sheridan","year":"1975","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2016.06.010","article-title":"Comparison of 2 available methods with Bland-Altman analysis for measuring intracompartmental pressure","volume":"34","author":"Tian","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Emerg Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2023.04.008","article-title":"Value of Multimodality Ultrasound in Quantitative Evaluation of the Intra-compartmental Pressure and Perfusion Pressure in Acute Compartment Syndrome in a Rabbit Model","volume":"49","author":"Xing","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med Biol"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-7254.2005.00128.x"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005131-199611000-00008"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198801000-00021","article-title":"The compartment syndrome. An experimental and clinical study of muscular energy metabolism using phosphorus nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy","volume":"1988","author":"Heppenstall","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-198908000-00008","article-title":"Compartment syndrome: a quantitative study of high-energy phosphorus compounds using 31P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy","volume":"29","author":"Heppenstall","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0000000000000651","article-title":"Direct Measurement of Tissue Oxygenation as a Method of Diagnosis of Acute Compartment Syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Weick","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Orthop Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-950X.1987.tb00982.x","article-title":"Osteofascial compartment syndrome in the dog","volume":"16","author":"Basinger","year":"1987","journal-title":"Vet Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.3928\/01477447-20060501-07","article-title":"Elevation in compartment pressure following hypovolemic shock and fluid resuscitation: a canine model","volume":"29","author":"Ablove","year":"2006","journal-title":"Orthopedics"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archsurg.133.9.953"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1159\/000186448","article-title":"Hypertonic mannitol ameliorates intracompartmental tamponade in model compartment syndrome in the dog","volume":"58","author":"Better","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nephron"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0b013e3182a9ccd1","article-title":"Can intramuscular glucose levels diagnose compartment syndrome?","volume":"76","author":"Doro","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.59","first-page":"222","article-title":"Noninvasive evaluation and correlation of hemodynamics in \u201ccompartment syndrome\u201d","volume":"29","author":"Gall","year":"1978","journal-title":"Surg Forum"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198507000-00036","article-title":"Decompression of an experimental compartment syndrome in dogs with hyaluronidase","volume":"1985","author":"Gershuni","year":"1985","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3468(96)90162-1"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-197860040-00012","article-title":"Fluid balance within the canine anterolateral compartment and its relationship to compartment syndromes","volume":"60","author":"Hargens","year":"1978","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198163040-00014","article-title":"Quantitation of skeletal-muscle necrosis in a model compartment syndrome","volume":"63","author":"Hargens","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-197961020-00006","article-title":"Peripheral nerve-conduction block by high muscle-compartment pressure","volume":"61","author":"Hargens","year":"1979","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1097\/00006534-199202000-00014","article-title":"Muscle microcirculatory impairment following acute compartment syndrome in the dog","volume":"89","author":"Har-Shai","year":"1992","journal-title":"Plast Reconstr Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198668060-00004","article-title":"A comparative study of the tolerance of skeletal muscle to ischemia. Tourniquet application compared with acute compartment syndrome","volume":"68","author":"Heppenstall","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005131-199306000-00001"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4804(82)90097-X"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199407000-00010"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-199302000-00010","article-title":"Measurement of intracompartmental pressure: a comparison of the slit catheter, side-ported needle, and simple needle","volume":"75","author":"Moed","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198505000-00033","article-title":"Long-term myoneural function after an induced compartment syndrome in the canine hindlimb","volume":"1985","author":"Mortensen","year":"1985","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.72","unstructured":"Ombrellaro MP . Ultrasound Characteristics of Lower Extremity Venous Blood Flow for the Early Diagnosis of Compartment Syndrome: An Experimental Study. JOURNAL OF VASCULAR TECHNOLOGY 1996:71\u20136."},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1067\/mva.1989.vs0090244"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-197805000-00001"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.75","first-page":"446","article-title":"Compartmental pressure measurements: an experimental investigation using the slit catheter","volume":"21","author":"Rorabeck","year":"1981","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.76","first-page":"248","article-title":"Evaluation of limb compartment with suspected increased interstitial pressure. A noninvasive method for determining quantitative hardness","volume":"1994","author":"Steinberg","year":"1994","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198365050-00011","article-title":"Reduction of skeletal muscle necrosis using intermittent hyperbaric oxygen in a model compartment syndrome","volume":"65","author":"Strauss","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100040114","article-title":"Delayed use of hyperbaric oxygen for treatment of a model anterior compartment syndrome","volume":"4","author":"Strauss","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Orthop Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-198011000-00006"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198668080-00011","article-title":"Hyperbaric oxygen reduces edema and necrosis of skeletal muscle in compartment syndromes associated with hemorrhagic hypotension","volume":"68","author":"Skyhar","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.TA.0000169867.08607.F1"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0b013e3182a75ceb","article-title":"Correlation of near-infrared spectroscopy and direct pressure monitoring in an acute porcine compartmental syndrome model","volume":"28","author":"Cathcart","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Orthop Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e122","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0000000000002505","article-title":"Porcine Model of Acute Compartment Syndrome","volume":"37","author":"Honjol","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Orthop Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199911000-00002","article-title":"Near-infrared spectroscopy: a potential method for continuous, transcutaneous monitoring for compartmental syndrome in critically injured patients","volume":"47","author":"Arbabi","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Trauma"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e469","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002998","article-title":"Systemic Administration of Carbon Monoxide-Releasing Molecule-3 Protects the Skeletal Muscle in Porcine Model of Compartment Syndrome","volume":"46","author":"Bihari","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2017.11.036","article-title":"Compression sonography for non-invasive measurement of lower leg compartment pressure in an animal model","volume":"49","author":"Bloch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000001225","article-title":"Comparison of NIRS, serum biomarkers, and muscle damage in a porcine balloon compression model of acute compartment syndrome","volume":"81","author":"Budsberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0b013e31819901db"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199904000-00009"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S67","DOI":"10.1007\/s000110300058","article-title":"Alterations in plasma amine oxidase activities in a compartment syndrome model","volume":"52 Suppl 1","author":"Kalchmair","year":"2003","journal-title":"Inflamm Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3357\/ASEM.2853.2011","article-title":"Extremity compartment syndrome in pigs during hypobaric simulation of aeromedical evacuation","volume":"82","author":"Kalns","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aviat Space Environ Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-01405-0","article-title":"Developing an in-vivo physiological porcine model of inducing acute atraumatic compartment syndrome towards a non-invasive diagnosis using shear wave elastography","volume":"11","author":"Kang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen MM , Shamdasani V , Gades A , Gregory KW , Erkamp R , Xie H , Zhu M , Graham T , Lazar J , Jones JM , et al . Compartment syndrome detection using vibration-enabled ultrasound shear wave elastography \u2013 simulation and experimental results. 2019 IEEE International Ultrasonics Symposium (IUS); 2019,Glasgow, United Kingdom. doi:10.1109\/ULTSYM.2019.8926283","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2019.8926283"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.bot.0000155308.20133.71"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/52\/18\/015"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/56\/7\/006","article-title":"Microwave tomography of extremities: 1. Dedicated 2D system and physiological signatures","volume":"56","author":"Semenov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys Med Biol"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.25339","article-title":"Percutaneously introduced wireless intramuscular near-infrared spectroscopy device detects muscle oxygenation changes in porcine model of lower extremity compartment syndrome","volume":"41","author":"Westman","year":"2023","journal-title":"J Orthop Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.M.01010"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1021\/acssensors.0c01686","article-title":"Portable Oxygen-Sensing Device for the Improved Assessment of Compartment Syndrome and other Hypoxia-Related Conditions","volume":"6","author":"Witthauer","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Sens"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.100","first-page":"276","article-title":"The evaluation of compartmental syndromes using somatosensory evoked potentials in monkeys","volume":"1993","author":"Present","year":"1993","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1097\/00006534-198308000-00016","article-title":"Effect of Acute Compartmental Pressure Change on Response to Vibratory Stimuli in Primates","volume":"72","author":"Dellon","year":"1983","journal-title":"Plast Reconstr Surg (1946)"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultrasmedbio.2023.12.022","article-title":"In Vivo Ultrasound Shear Wave Elastography Assessment of Acute Compartment Syndrome in a Turkey Model","volume":"50","author":"Ren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ultrasound Med Biol"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usaa446","article-title":"Hemodynamic Assay of Hind Limb in Multiple Animal Models","volume":"186","author":"Hansen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mil Med"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2429","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-019-04386-y","article-title":"Diagnosing acute compartment syndrome-where have we got to?","volume":"43","author":"McMillan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int Orthop"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.K.01731"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/emp2.12334","article-title":"Utility of laboratory markers in evaluating for acute compartment syndrome in the emergency department","volume":"2","author":"Weingart","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-198111000-00014"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2044.2004.03837.x"},{"key":"2025090506450806000_10.Suppl_5.e001754.109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/Aln.0000000000001195"}],"container-title":["Trauma Surgery &amp; Acute Care Open"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/syndication.highwire.org\/content\/doi\/10.1136\/tsaco-2025-001754","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T13:45:26Z","timestamp":1757079926000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/tsaco.bmj.com\/lookup\/doi\/10.1136\/tsaco-2025-001754"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]},"references-count":109,"journal-issue":{"issue":"Suppl 5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1136\/tsaco-2025-001754"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/tsaco-2025-001754","relation":{},"ISSN":["2397-5776"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2397-5776","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}}}