{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T06:41:18Z","timestamp":1778049678237,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Canadian Science Publishing","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]],"date-time":"2026-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767225600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/deed.en_GB"}],"funder":[{"name":"Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services","award":["75N93021C00014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N93021C00014"]}]},{"name":"Division of Intramural Research"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["cdnsciencepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Can. J. Microbiol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b was introduced into North America in 2021. In 2022, clade 2.3.4.4b spilled into domestic poultry in the United States (U.S.), resulting in the largest HPAI outbreak in U.S. history. In December 2023, H5N1 2.3.4.4b was detected on an upland game bird farm in Pennsylvania. History, clinical signs, and gross lesions were suggestive of marble spleen disease. However, HPAI was identified by real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; gene sequencing confirmed genotype C2.1 with phylodynamic analyses providing evidence of a wild bird introduction. Predictive mathematical modeling estimated the time of virus introduction onto the farm (15 days (95% C.I., 11\u201323) before the date of confirmed detection) being similar or longer than previously described for domestic poultry. Although bioexclusion measures were unable to prevent the initial exposure due to industry rearing practices, biocontainment procedures appeared to prevent spread. The lessons learned from this case may be important for other animal agriculture commodities, especially those species that are infrequently handled or observed and may have inaccurately calculated mortality levels. This well-characterized outbreak and other experiences with natural infection should be taken as opportunities to better understand the field dynamics of this virus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]],"date-time":"2025-12-22T21:35:08Z","timestamp":1766439308000},"page":"1-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1139\/csp-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI H5N1, clade 2.3.4.4b, genotype C2.1) in commercial ring-necked pheasants during the 2022 outbreak in the United States"],"prefix":"10.1139","volume":"72","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7036-4093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kayla R.","family":"Niel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5521-774X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaitlyn M.","family":"St. Charles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5384-8709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan Y.","family":"Elissa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University","place":["USA"]},{"name":"Washington State University","place":["Pyallup, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7724-3068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Megan E.","family":"Lighty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University","place":["USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5407-2478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amos","family":"Ssematimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]},{"name":"Gulu University","place":["Gulu, Uganda"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3547-7576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marie","family":"Culhane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3462-9072","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alvin","family":"Crespo-Bellido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","place":["Bethesda, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2106-1166","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"N\u00eddia S.","family":"Trov\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","place":["Bethesda, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4814-0179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martha I.","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institutes of Health","place":["Bethesda, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3656-1865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carol","family":"Cardona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"155","reference":[{"key":"refg1\/ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-2659.2009.00074.x"},{"key":"refg2\/ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985816671377"},{"key":"refg3\/ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/syz020"},{"key":"refg4\/ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-019-0704-5"},{"key":"refg5\/ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81254-z"},{"key":"refg6\/ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2008.12.003"},{"key":"refg7\/ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2105-10-421"},{"key":"refg8\/ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03079450020016913"},{"key":"refg9\/ref9","volume-title":"Current situation: bird flu in dairy cows, avian influenza (bird flu)","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg10\/ref10","volume-title":"Subject: H5 avian influenza virus exemption","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2024"},{"key":"refg11\/ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-25.4.455"},{"key":"refg12\/ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mss265"},{"key":"refg13\/ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14091372"},{"key":"refg14\/ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12050"},{"key":"refg15\/ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/mst010"},{"key":"refg16\/ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12040391"},{"key":"refg17\/ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu531"},{"key":"refg18\/ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000520"},{"key":"refg19\/ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vead069"},{"key":"refg20\/ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119712244.fmatter"},{"key":"refg21\/ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00161"},{"key":"refg22\/ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaa015"},{"key":"refg23\/ref23","volume-title":"Climatological data for SELINSGROVE 2 S, PA\u2014December 2023","author":"National Weather Service"},{"key":"refg24\/ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-21-00019"},{"key":"refg25\/ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adq0900"},{"key":"refg26\/ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkac1003"},{"key":"refg27\/ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10635150490522232"},{"key":"refg28\/ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2007.06.006"},{"key":"refg29\/ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.38-2-149"},{"key":"refg30\/ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/0005-2086-47.s3.956"},{"key":"refg31\/ref31","volume-title":"Avian flu devastates major shooting preserve in Pennsylvania, the outdoor wire","author":"Perrotte K.","year":"2024"},{"key":"refg32\/ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sysbio\/syy032"},{"key":"refg33\/ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vew007"},{"key":"refg34\/ref34","volume-title":"Diseases of poultry","author":"Rautenschlein S.","year":"2020","edition":"14"},{"key":"refg35\/ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Re3data.Org. 2012. \u201cGISAID.\u201d re3data.org\u2014registry of research data repositories. doi:10.17616\/R3Q59F.","DOI":"10.17616\/R3Q59F"},{"key":"refg36\/ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045059"},{"key":"refg37\/ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001946"},{"key":"refg38\/ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.157.6.159"},{"key":"refg39\/ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ssematimba A. 2024. Estimating adequate contact rates and time of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus introduction into individual United States commercial poultry flocks during the 2022\/24 epizootic. bioRxiv. doi:10.1101\/2024.09.08.611909.","DOI":"10.1101\/2024.09.08.611909"},{"key":"refg40\/ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/11870-042518-Reg.1"},{"key":"refg41\/ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268819000633"},{"key":"refg42\/ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/vey016"},{"key":"refg43\/ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119371199"},{"key":"refg44\/ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/11108-042415-Reg"},{"key":"refg45\/ref45","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. 2022a. 2022\u20132023 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Outbreak Summary of Depopulation Methods and the Impact on Lateral Spread. Available from https:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/depopulationpolicy.pdf [accessed 17 September 2024]."},{"key":"refg46\/ref46","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. 2022b. HPAI Response, Response Goals & Depopulation Policy January 2022. Available from https:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/hpai-2022-2023-summary-depop-analysis.pdf [accessed 17 September 2024]."},{"key":"refg47\/ref47","volume-title":"Epidemiologic and other analyses of HPAI-affected poultry flocks: 1 June 2023 interim report","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2023"},{"key":"refg48\/ref48","volume-title":"Confirmations of highly pathogenic avian influenza in commercial and backyard flocks","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg49\/ref49","volume-title":"Detections of highly pathogenic avian influenza in mammals","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg50\/ref50","volume-title":"Detections of highly pathogenic avian influenza in wild birds","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg51\/ref51","volume-title":"HPAI confirmed cases in livestock","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg52\/ref52","volume-title":"USDA invests up to $1 billion to combat avian flu and reduce egg prices","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg53\/ref53","volume-title":"The occurrence of another highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) spillover from wild birds into dairy cattle","author":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg54\/ref54","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. 2025g. 9 CFR 121.3\u2014VS select agents and toxins. Available from https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-9\/part-121\/section-121.3 [accessed 17 September 2024]."},{"key":"refg55\/ref55","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. 2025h. 9 CFR Part 145\u2014National Poultry Improvement Plan for Breeding Poultry. Available from https:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/current\/title-9\/part-145 [accessed 13 April 2025]."},{"key":"refg56\/ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioadv\/vbac050"},{"key":"refg57\/ref57","volume-title":"Hawks and owls","author":"Washburn B.E.","year":"2016"},{"key":"refg58\/ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/imt2.56"},{"key":"refg59\/ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1999.9820"},{"key":"refg60\/ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2023.109860"}],"container-title":["Canadian Journal of Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T03:46:50Z","timestamp":1769053610000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"references-count":60,"alternative-id":["10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0198","relation":{},"ISSN":["0008-4166","1480-3275"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0008-4166","type":"print"},{"value":"1480-3275","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-01-23","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}