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Microbiol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In 2022, highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b was detected in United States (US) poultry, quickly escalating into an outbreak that surpassed the 2014\/15 HPAI US event in scale and impact. Unlike in 2014\/15, the 2022\/3\/4\/5 outbreak has included numerous HPAI detections in previously infrequently affected commodities such as broilers and commercially-raised upland game birds. Here, we describe H5 HPAI detections that occurred between December 2023 and January 2024 in a multipremises, commerical upland game bird system located in the Midwestern US. We used an approximate Bayesian computation algorithm and stochastic within-flock HPAI transmission model to estimate the following: (1) time of HPAI introduction onto each affected premises, (2) number of days between estimated times of introduction and times of detection, and (3) the adequate contact rates and basic reproduction numbers within individual barns. Clinical signs and mortality observed in the infected pheasant flocks were largely consistent with other pheasant H5 clade 2.3.4.4b outbreaks. Across the system, the estimated transmission metrics were noticeably lower than those calculated from outbreaks in other poultry species. However, times to detection were similar to HPAI outbreaks that have occurred in other commodities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,22]],"date-time":"2025-12-22T21:35:08Z","timestamp":1766439308000},"page":"1-8","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1139\/csp-crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Evaluation of transmission metrics in a slow-spreading highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak in a commercial upland game bird system"],"prefix":"10.1139","volume":"72","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5521-774X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaitlyn M.","family":"St. Charles","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5407-2478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amos","family":"Ssematimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]},{"name":"Gulu University","place":["Gulu, Uganda"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9196-1493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter J.","family":"Bonney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3656-1865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carol J.","family":"Cardona","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota","place":["Saint Paul, USA"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"155","reference":[{"key":"refg1\/ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17582\/journal.jahp\/2025\/13.s1.65.72"},{"key":"refg2\/ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v13122509"},{"key":"refg3\/ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2399970"},{"key":"refg4\/ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268821002740"},{"key":"refg5\/ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pex075"},{"key":"refg6\/ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v14081600"},{"key":"refg7\/ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12050"},{"key":"refg8\/ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2024.741597"},{"key":"refg9\/ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/aab-53-360-2010"},{"key":"refg10\/ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2022.10.009"},{"key":"refg11\/ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-21-00019"},{"key":"refg12\/ref12","volume-title":"Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI H5N1, clade 2.3.4.4b, genotype C2.1) in commercial ring-necked pheasants during the 2022 outbreak in the United States","author":"Niel K.","year":"2025"},{"key":"refg13\/ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v15112273"},{"key":"refg14\/ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2024.2348521"},{"key":"refg15\/ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.001946"},{"key":"refg16\/ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/v15091909"},{"key":"refg17\/ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0310733"},{"key":"refg18\/ref18","volume-title":"Confirmations of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Commercial and Backyard Flocks [Government]","author":"USDA APHIS","year":"2024"},{"key":"refg19\/ref19","volume-title":"Epidemiologic and Other Analyses of HPAI-Affected Poultry Flocks: July 15, 2015 Report","author":"USDA APHIS VS","year":"2015"},{"key":"refg20\/ref20","unstructured":"USDA APHIS VS. 2022. Epidemiologic and Other Analyses of HPAI Affected Poultry Flocks July 2022 Interim Report. USDA:APHIS:VS: Center for Epidemiology and Animal Health. pp. 1\u201373. Available from https:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/animal_health\/downloads\/animal_diseases\/ai\/epi-analyses-hpai-poultry-july2022.pdf."},{"key":"refg21\/ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1637\/11108-042415-Reg"},{"key":"refg22\/ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens13040280"}],"container-title":["Canadian Journal of Microbiology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,31]],"date-time":"2026-01-31T05:00:17Z","timestamp":1769835617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/cdnsciencepub.com\/doi\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"references-count":22,"alternative-id":["10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1139\/cjm-2025-0203","relation":{},"ISSN":["0008-4166","1480-3275"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0008-4166","type":"print"},{"value":"1480-3275","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-02-04","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}