{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T14:58:39Z","timestamp":1777647519144,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,23]],"date-time":"2016-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1458691200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000269","name":"Economic and Social Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ES\/K008013\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ES\/K008013\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000269","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["EPJ Data Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]},"DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,22]],"date-time":"2016-03-22T21:56:23Z","timestamp":1458683783000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":227,"title":["Us and them: identifying cyber hate on Twitter across multiple protected characteristics"],"prefix":"10.1140","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Pete","family":"Burnap","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Matthew L","family":"Williams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,23]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"72_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1002\/poi3.85","volume":"7","author":"P Burnap","year":"2015","unstructured":"Burnap P, Williams ML (2015) Cyber hate speech on Twitter: an application of machine classification and statistical modeling for policy and decision making. Policy & Internet 7(2):223-242","journal-title":"Policy & Internet"},{"key":"72_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azu086","volume":"55","author":"ML Williams","year":"2015","unstructured":"Williams ML, Burnap P (2015) Cyberhate on social media in the aftermath of Woolwich: a case study in computational criminology and big data. Br J Criminol 55:1-28","journal-title":"Br J Criminol"},{"key":"72_CR3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326926CLP0602_2","volume":"6","author":"L Leets","year":"2001","unstructured":"Leets L (2001) Responses to Internet hate sites: is speech too free in cyberspace? Commun Law Policy 6:287-317","journal-title":"Commun Law Policy"},{"key":"72_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S8755-4615(01)00057-3","volume":"18","author":"K Eichhorn","year":"2001","unstructured":"Eichhorn K (2001) Re-in\/citing linguistic injuries: speech acts, cyberhate, and the spatial and temporal character of networked environments. Comput Compos 18:293-304","journal-title":"Comput Compos"},{"key":"72_CR5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1080\/13600830902814984","volume":"18","author":"B Perry","year":"2009","unstructured":"Perry B, Olsson P (2009) Cyberhate: the globalisation of hate. Inf Commun Technol Law 18:185-199","journal-title":"Inf Commun Technol Law"},{"key":"72_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1108\/S1537-466120140000018021","volume-title":"Soul of society: a focus on the lives of children & youth","author":"A Oksanen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Oksanen A, Hawdon J, Holkeri E, Nasi M, Rasanen P (2014) Exposure to online hate among young social media users. In: Warehime MN (ed) Soul of society: a focus on the lives of children & youth. Emerald, Bingley, UK, pp\u00a0253-273"},{"key":"72_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/s13278-014-0206-4","volume":"4","author":"P Burnap","year":"2014","unstructured":"Burnap P, Williams M, Sloan L, Rana O, Housley W, Edwards A, Knight V, Procter R, Voss A (2014) Tweeting the terror: modelling the social media reaction to the Woolwich terrorist attack. Soc Netw Anal Min 4:206","journal-title":"Soc Netw Anal Min"},{"key":"72_CR8","unstructured":"Inter-parliamentary Coalition for Combating Anti-Semitism (ICCA) (2013) Task for on Internet hate: report and recommendation of the cochairs. London"},{"key":"72_CR9","unstructured":"Anti-Defamation League (2014) Best practices for responding to cyberhate. London"},{"key":"72_CR10","unstructured":"Giannasi P (2014) Hate on the Internet: progress on the UK Government\u2019s hate crime action plan. Presented at the all wales hate crime criminal justice board, British Transport Police"},{"key":"72_CR11","unstructured":"Barriers B (2003) First out\u2026Report of the findings of the Beyond Barriers survey of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people in Scotland. PhD thesis, Beyond Barriers, Glasgow"},{"issue":"3","key":"72_CR12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1177\/0269758012446983","volume":"18","author":"N Chakraborti","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chakraborti N, Zempi I (2012) The veil under attack: gendered dimensions of islamophobic victimization. Int Rev Vict 18(3):269-284","journal-title":"Int Rev Vict"},{"key":"72_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azu043","volume":"54","author":"ML Williams","year":"2014","unstructured":"Williams ML, Tregidga J (2014) Hate crime victimisation in Wales: psychological and physical impacts across seven hate crime victim-types. Br J Criminol 54:946-967","journal-title":"Br J Criminol"},{"issue":"4","key":"72_CR14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1111\/1745-9125.12022","volume":"51","author":"RD King","year":"2013","unstructured":"King RD, Sutton GM (2013) High times for hate crime: explaining the temporal clustering of hate motivated offending. Criminology 51(4):871-894","journal-title":"Criminology"},{"key":"72_CR15","first-page":"38","volume":"28","author":"A Downs","year":"1972","unstructured":"Downs A (1972) Up and down with ecology\u00a0- the \u2018issue-attention cycle\u2019. Public Interest 28:38-50","journal-title":"Public Interest"},{"issue":"4","key":"72_CR16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1080\/10439463.2013.780225","volume":"23","author":"ML Williams","year":"2013","unstructured":"Williams ML, Edwards A, Housley W, Burnap P, Rana O, Avis N, Morgan J, Sloan L (2013) Policing cyber-neighbourhoods: tension monitoring and social media networks. Policing Soc 23(4):461-481","journal-title":"Policing Soc"},{"key":"72_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2013.04.013","volume":"95","author":"P Burnap","year":"2015","unstructured":"Burnap P, Rana O, Avis N, Williams ML, Housley W, Edwardsb A, Morganb J, Sloanb L (2015) Detecting tension in online communities with computational Twitter analysis. Technol Forecast Soc Change 95:96-108","journal-title":"Technol Forecast Soc Change"},{"key":"72_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2544","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.21416","volume":"61","author":"M Thelwall","year":"2010","unstructured":"Thelwall M, Buckley K, Paltogou G, Cai D, Kappas A (2010) Sentiment strength detection in short informal text. J\u00a0Am Soc Inf Sci Technol 61:2544-2558","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Soc Inf Sci Technol"},{"key":"72_CR19","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2013 conference on empirical methods in natural language processing, October 18-21, Seattle, Washington","author":"V Kolhatkar","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kolhatkar V, Zinsmeister H, Hirst G (2013) Interpreting anaphoric shell nouns using antecedents of cataphoric shell nouns as training data. In: Proceedings of the 2013 conference on empirical methods in natural language processing, October 18-21, Seattle, Washington"},{"key":"72_CR20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.21180","volume":"61","author":"M Thelwall","year":"2010","unstructured":"Thelwall M (2010) Data mining emotion in social network communication: gender differences in MySpace. J\u00a0Am Soc Inf Sci Technol 61:190-199","journal-title":"J\u00a0Am Soc Inf Sci Technol"},{"key":"72_CR21","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 27th annual international conference on research and development in information retrieval, July 25-29, Sheffield, UK","author":"E Greevy","year":"2004","unstructured":"Greevy E, Smeaton AF (2004) Classifying racist texts using a support vector machine. In: Proceedings of the 27th annual international conference on research and development in information retrieval, July 25-29, Sheffield, UK"},{"key":"72_CR22","volume-title":"Proceedings of the first IEEE international conference on semantic computing, September 17-19, Irvine, CA","author":"N Pendar","year":"2007","unstructured":"Pendar N (2007) Toward spotting the pedophile telling victim from predator in text chats. In: Proceedings of the first IEEE international conference on semantic computing, September 17-19, Irvine, CA"},{"key":"72_CR23","volume-title":"Proceedings of the fourth ASE\/IEEE international conference on social computing (SocialCom 2012), September 3-6, Amsterdam","author":"Y Chen","year":"2012","unstructured":"Chen Y, Zhou Y, Zhu S, Xu H (2012) Detecting offensive language in social media to protect adolescent online safety. In: Proceedings of the fourth ASE\/IEEE international conference on social computing (SocialCom 2012), September 3-6, Amsterdam"},{"key":"72_CR24","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 25th Benelux conference on artificial intelligence, BNAIC 2013, November 7-8, Delft, the Netherlands","author":"M Dadvar","year":"2013","unstructured":"Dadvar M, Trieschnigg D, de Jong F (2013) Expert knowledge for automatic detection of bullies in social networks. In: Proceedings of the 25th Benelux conference on artificial intelligence, BNAIC 2013, November 7-8, Delft, the Netherlands"},{"issue":"3","key":"72_CR25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/2362394.2362400","volume":"2","author":"K Dinakar","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dinakar K, Jones B, Havasi C, Lieberman H, Picard R (2012) Common sense reasoning for detection, prevention, and mitigation of cyberbullying. ACM Trans Interact Intell Syst 2(3):18","journal-title":"ACM Trans Interact Intell Syst"},{"issue":"4","key":"72_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/08900520903320936","volume":"24","author":"PM Meddaugh","year":"2009","unstructured":"Meddaugh PM, Kay J (2009) Hate speech or \u2018reasonable racism?\u2019 The other in stormfront. J\u00a0Mass Media Ethics 24(4):251-268","journal-title":"J\u00a0Mass Media Ethics"},{"key":"72_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.anthro.28.1.175","volume":"28","author":"R Wodak","year":"1999","unstructured":"Wodak R, Reisigl M (1999) Discourse and racism: European perspectives. Annu Rev Anthropol 28:175-199","journal-title":"Annu Rev Anthropol"},{"key":"72_CR28","unstructured":"Marneffe M, MacCartney B, Manning CD (2006) Generating typed dependency parses from phrase structure parses. Paper presented at the international conference on language resources and evaluation (LREC, May 24-26, Genoa, Italy)"}],"container-title":["EPJ Data Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,5]],"date-time":"2019-09-05T18:09:52Z","timestamp":1567706992000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/epjdatascience.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,23]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]}},"alternative-id":["72"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0072-6","relation":{},"ISSN":["2193-1127"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2193-1127","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,3,23]]},"article-number":"11"}}