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However, the OSN environment is quite slippery and hides potential risks: many studies presented evidence about the presence of d\/misinformation campaigns and malicious activities by genuine or automated users, putting at severe risk the efficiency of online and offline political campaigns. This phenomenon is particularly evident during crucial political events, as political elections. In the present paper, we provide a comprehensive description of the networks of interactions among users and bots during the UK elections of 2019. In particular, we focus on the polarised discussion about Brexit on Twitter, analysing a data set made of more than 10 millions tweets posted for over a month. We found that the presence of automated accounts infected the debate particularly in the days before the UK national elections, in which we find a steep increase of bots in the discussion; in the days after the election day, their incidence returned to values similar to the ones observed few weeks before the elections. On the other hand, we found that the number of suspended users (i.e. accounts that were removed by the platform for some violation of the Twitter policy) remained constant until the election day, after which it reached significantly higher values. Remarkably, after the TV debate between Boris Johnson and Jeremy Corbyn, we observed the injection of a large number of novel bots whose behaviour is markedly different from that of pre-existing ones. Finally, we explored the bots\u2019 political orientation, finding that their activity is spread across the whole political spectrum, although in different proportions, and we studied the different usage of hashtags and URLs by automated accounts and suspended users, targeting the formation of common narratives in different sides of the debate.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-022-00330-0","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]],"date-time":"2022-03-22T11:05:54Z","timestamp":1647947154000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Brexit and bots: characterizing the behaviour of automated accounts on Twitter during the UK election"],"prefix":"10.1140","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4346-1977","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Bruno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Renaud","family":"Lambiotte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fabio","family":"Saracco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"330_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2018.1428656","volume":"21","author":"E Dubois","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dubois E, Blank G (2018) The echo chamber is overstated: the moderating effect of political interest and diverse media. 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This work is supported by the European Union \u2013 Horizon 2020 Program under the scheme \u201cINFRAIA-01-2018-2019 \u2013 Integrating Activities for Advanced Communities\u201d, Grant Agreement n.871042, \u201cSoBigData++: European Integrated Infrastructure for Social Mining and Big Data Analytics\u201d (","order":6,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"www.sobigdata.eu","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/http:\/\/www.sobigdata.eu","order":7,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":").\u201d","order":8,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"26 April 2022","order":9,"name":"change_date","label":"Change Date","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"Correction","order":10,"name":"change_type","label":"Change Type","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"A Correction to this paper has been published:","order":11,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-022-00337-7","URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-022-00337-7","order":12,"name":"change_details","label":"Change Details","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The authors declare that they have no competing interests.","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"17"}}