{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,11]],"date-time":"2025-09-11T19:30:50Z","timestamp":1757619050862,"version":"3.44.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752624000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100022480","name":"Department of Home Affairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PRN0006958","PRN0006958","PRN0006958","PRN0006958"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PRN0006958","PRN0006958","PRN0006958","PRN0006958"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100022480","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["link.springer.com"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["EPJ Data Sci."],"DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T12:23:00Z","timestamp":1752668580000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Misinformation is not about bad facts: an analysis of the production and consumption of fringe content"],"prefix":"10.1140","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"JooYoung","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Booth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Hany","family":"Farid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Marian-Andrei","family":"Rizoiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"567_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Booth E, Lee J, Rizoiu M-A, Farid H (2024) Conspiracy, misinformation, radicalisation: understanding the online pathway to indoctrination and opportunities for intervention. Aust NZ J Sociol 14407833241231756","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4704213"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2020.1716500","volume":"37","author":"EK Vraga","year":"2020","unstructured":"Vraga EK, Bode L (2020) Defining misinformation and understanding its bounded nature: using expertise and evidence for describing misinformation. Polit Commun 37(1):136\u2013144","journal-title":"Polit Commun"},{"issue":"2","key":"567_CR3","first-page":"137","volume":"6","author":"EC Tandoc Jr","year":"2018","unstructured":"Tandoc EC Jr, Lim ZW, Ling R (2018) Defining \u201cfake news\u201d a typology of scholarly definitions. Dig Journal 6(2):137\u2013153","journal-title":"Dig Journal"},{"issue":"2","key":"567_CR4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1177\/1440783319893468","volume":"57","author":"K Attwell","year":"2021","unstructured":"Attwell K, Smith DT, Ward PR (2021) \u2018If your child\u2019s vaccinated, why do you care about mine?\u2019 Rhetoric, responsibility, power and vaccine rejection. Aust NZ J Sociol 57(2):268\u2013285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1440783319893468","journal-title":"Aust NZ J Sociol"},{"key":"567_CR5","unstructured":"Shearer E, Mitchell A (2021) News use across social media platforms in 2020. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/journalism\/2021\/01\/12\/appendix-changing-measurements-of-news-consumption-on-social-media\/"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1177\/26330024211010043","volume":"2","author":"AH Kydd","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kydd AH (2021) Decline, radicalization and the attack on the US Capitol. Violence Int J 2(1):3\u201323","journal-title":"Violence Int J"},{"key":"567_CR7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johns A, Bailo F, Booth E, Rizoiu M-A (2024) Labelling, shadow bans and community resistance: did meta\u2019s strategy to suppress rather than remove covid misinformation and conspiracy theory on Facebook slow the spread? Media Int Aust, 1329878\u2013241236984","DOI":"10.1177\/1329878X241236984"},{"key":"567_CR8","unstructured":"The Daily Edit, Inc (2023) The Daily Edit. https:\/\/dailyedit.com\/. Accessed: 2023-01-12"},{"issue":"8","key":"567_CR9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1177\/1948550620940539","volume":"11","author":"DP Calvillo","year":"2020","unstructured":"Calvillo DP, Ross BJ, Garcia RJ, Smelter TJ, Rutchick AM (2020) Political ideology predicts perceptions of the threat of covid-19 (and susceptibility to fake news about it). Soc Psychol Pers Sci 11(8):1119\u20131128","journal-title":"Soc Psychol Pers Sci"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1177\/22779752211027382","volume":"11","author":"R Das","year":"2022","unstructured":"Das R, Ahmed W (2022) Rethinking fake news: disinformation and ideology during the time of covid-19 global pandemic. IIM Kozhikode Soc Manag Rev 11(1):146\u2013159","journal-title":"IIM Kozhikode Soc Manag Rev"},{"key":"567_CR11","unstructured":"Pew Research Center (2024) Social Media and News Fact Sheet. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/journalism\/fact-sheet\/social-media-and-news-fact-sheet\/. Accessed: 2024-12-04"},{"key":"567_CR12","series-title":"News media research centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.60836\/fxcr-xq72","volume-title":"Digital news report: Australia 2024","author":"S Park","year":"2024","unstructured":"Park S, Fisher C, Mcguinness K, Lee J, Mccallum K, Yao S (2024) Digital news report: Australia 2024. News media research centre. University of Canberra. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.60836\/fxcr-xq72"},{"issue":"2","key":"567_CR13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ipm.2019.02.016","volume":"57","author":"SA Alkhodair","year":"2020","unstructured":"Alkhodair SA, Ding SH, Fung BC, Liu J (2020) Detecting breaking news rumors of emerging topics in social media. Inf Process Manag 57(2):102018","journal-title":"Inf Process Manag"},{"key":"567_CR14","volume-title":"Efficient estimation of word representations in vector space","author":"T Mikolov","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mikolov T, Chen K, Corrado G, Dean J (2013) Efficient estimation of word representations in vector space"},{"key":"567_CR15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubiaga A, Liakata M, Procter R (2016) Learning reporting dynamics during breaking news for rumour detection in social media. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.07363","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67217-5_8"},{"key":"567_CR16","first-page":"759","volume-title":"ICWSM","author":"B Horne","year":"2017","unstructured":"Horne B, Adali S (2017) This just in: fake news packs a lot in title, uses simpler, repetitive content in text body, more similar to satire than real news. In: ICWSM, vol\u00a011, pp\u00a0759\u2013766"},{"issue":"2","key":"567_CR17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.12700\/APH.19.2.2022.2.3","volume":"19","author":"M Sarnovsky\u0300","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sarnovsky\u0300 M, Maslej-Kre\u0161\u0148\u00e1kov\u00e1 V, Ivancov\u00e1 K (2022) Fake news detection related to the covid-19 in Slovak language using deep learning methods. Acta Polytech Hung 19(2):43\u201357","journal-title":"Acta Polytech Hung"},{"issue":"4","key":"567_CR18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s41060-021-00302-z","volume":"13","author":"S Raza","year":"2022","unstructured":"Raza S, Ding C (2022) Fake news detection based on news content and social contexts: a transformer-based approach. Int J Data Sci Anal 13(4):335\u2013362","journal-title":"Int J Data Sci Anal"},{"key":"567_CR19","first-page":"1425","volume-title":"ICWSM","author":"C Whitehouse","year":"2022","unstructured":"Whitehouse C, Weyde T, Madhyastha P, Komninos N (2022) Evaluation of fake news detection with knowledge-enhanced language models. In: ICWSM, vol\u00a016, pp\u00a01425\u20131429"},{"key":"567_CR20","unstructured":"Kumarage T, Garland J, Bhattacharjee A, Trapeznikov K, Ruston S, Liu H (2023) Stylometric Detection of AI-Generated Text in Twitter Timelines"},{"key":"567_CR21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511809071","volume-title":"Introduction to information retrieval","author":"CD Manning","year":"2008","unstructured":"Manning CD, Raghavan P, Sch\u00fctze H (2008) Introduction to information retrieval. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge"},{"key":"567_CR22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.repl4nlp-1.26","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th workshop on representation learning for NLP","author":"A Wegmann","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wegmann A, Schraagen M, Nguyen D (2022) Same author or just same topic? Towards content-independent style representations. In: Gella S, He H, Majumder BP, Can B, Giunchiglia E, Cahyawijaya S, Min S, Mozes M, Li XL, Augenstein I, Rogers A, Cho K, Grefenstette E, Rimell L, Dyer C (eds) Proceedings of the 7th workshop on representation learning for NLP. Association for Computational Linguistics, Dublin, pp\u00a0249\u2013268. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.18653\/v1\/2022.repl4nlp-1.26. https:\/\/aclanthology.org\/2022.repl4nlp-1.26"},{"key":"567_CR23","first-page":"360","volume-title":"Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media","author":"O Khalid","year":"2020","unstructured":"Khalid O, Srinivasan P (2020) Style matters! Investigating linguistic style in online communities. In: Proceedings of the international AAAI conference on web and social media, vol\u00a014, pp\u00a0360\u2013369"},{"key":"567_CR24","series-title":"News and media research centre (UC)","volume-title":"Digital news report: Australia 2021","author":"S Park","year":"2021","unstructured":"Park S, Fisher C, McGuinness K, Lee JY, McCallum K (2021) Digital news report: Australia 2021. News and media research centre (UC). University of Canberra"},{"key":"567_CR25","unstructured":"Newman N, Fletcher R, Schulz A, Andi S, Robertson CT, Nielsen RK (2021) Reuters institute digital news report 2021. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism"},{"key":"567_CR26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bailo F, Johns A, Rizoiu M-A (2023) Riding information crises: the performance of far-right Twitter users in Australia during the 2019\u20132020 bushfires and the COVID-19 pandemic. Inf Commun Soc, 1\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1369118X.2023.2205479","DOI":"10.1080\/1369118X.2023.2205479"},{"key":"567_CR27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1057\/9781137276773_2","volume-title":"Political homophily on the web","author":"R Ackland","year":"2014","unstructured":"Ackland R, Shorish J (2014) In: Cantijoch M, Gibson R, Ward S (eds) Political homophily on the web. Palgrave Macmillan, London, pp\u00a025\u201346. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1057\/9781137276773_2"},{"key":"567_CR28","unstructured":"Ram R, Rizoiu M-A (2022) Data-driven ideology detection: a case study of far-right extremist. Defence Human Sciences Symposium"},{"key":"567_CR29","first-page":"341","volume-title":"The Sage handbook of personality and individual differences","author":"CK Chung","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chung CK, Pennebaker JW (2018) What do we know when we liwc a person? Text analysis as an assessment tool for traits, personal concerns and life stories. In: The Sage handbook of personality and individual differences, pp\u00a0341\u2013360"},{"key":"567_CR30","unstructured":"Vegt I, Mozes M, Kleinberg B, Gill P (2021) The grievance dictionary: understanding threatening language use. Behav Res Methods, 1\u201315"},{"key":"567_CR31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2021.110733","volume":"175","author":"L Stankov","year":"2021","unstructured":"Stankov L (2021) From social conservatism and authoritarian populism to militant right-wing extremism. Pers Individ Differ 175:110733","journal-title":"Pers Individ Differ"},{"key":"567_CR32","unstructured":"Okulska I, Zawadzka A (2022) Styles with benefits. The stylometrix vectors for stylistic and semantic text classification of small-scale datasets and different sample length"},{"key":"567_CR33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203771587","volume-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"J Cohen","year":"2013","unstructured":"Cohen J (2013) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge, New York"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1177\/0894439316684481","volume":"36","author":"GW Yun","year":"2018","unstructured":"Yun GW, Park S-Y, Lee S, Flynn MA (2018) Hostile media or hostile source? Bias perception of shared news. Soc Sci Comput Rev 36(1):21\u201335","journal-title":"Soc Sci Comput Rev"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.54.101601.145041","volume":"54","author":"JW Pennebaker","year":"2003","unstructured":"Pennebaker JW, Mehl MR, Niederhoffer KG (2003) Psychological aspects of natural language use: our words, our selves. Annu Rev Psychol 54(1):547\u2013577","journal-title":"Annu Rev Psychol"},{"issue":"1","key":"567_CR36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X09351676","volume":"29","author":"YR Tausczik","year":"2010","unstructured":"Tausczik YR, Pennebaker JW (2010) The psychological meaning of words: liwc and computerized text analysis methods. J Lang Soc Psychol 29(1):24\u201354","journal-title":"J Lang Soc Psychol"},{"key":"567_CR37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2022.117280","volume":"203","author":"MA Rocha","year":"2022","unstructured":"Rocha MA, Morais PSG, Silva Barros DM, Santos JPQ, Dias-Trindade S, Medeiros Valentim RA (2022) A text as unique as a fingerprint: text analysis and authorship recognition in a virtual learning environment of the unified health system in Brazil. Expert Syst Appl 203:117280","journal-title":"Expert Syst Appl"},{"key":"567_CR38","first-page":"573","volume-title":"ICWSM","author":"J Lee","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lee J, Wu S, Ertugrul AM, Lin Y-R, Xie L (2022) Whose advantage? Measuring attention dynamics across youtube and Twitter on controversial topics. In: ICWSM, vol\u00a016, pp\u00a0573\u2013583"},{"key":"567_CR39","unstructured":"Devlin J, Chang M-W, Lee K, Toutanova K (2018) Bert: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805"},{"key":"567_CR40","volume-title":"Sentence-BERT: sentence embeddings using Siamese BERT-networks","author":"N Reimers","year":"2019","unstructured":"Reimers N, Gurevych I (2019) Sentence-BERT: sentence embeddings using Siamese BERT-networks"},{"issue":"6239","key":"567_CR41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaa1160","volume":"348","author":"E Bakshy","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bakshy E, Messing S, Adamic LA (2015) Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science 348(6239):1130\u20131132","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"567_CR42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim S, Kim K, Xue H (2024) Fingerprints of conspiracy theories: identifying signature information sources of a misleading narrative and their roles in shaping message content and dissemination. J Online Trust Saf 2(2)","DOI":"10.54501\/jots.v2i2.152"}],"container-title":["EPJ Data Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5\/fulltext.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,7]],"date-time":"2025-09-07T12:12:10Z","timestamp":1757247130000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/epjdatascience.springeropen.com\/articles\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["567"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-025-00567-5","relation":{},"ISSN":["2193-1127"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2193-1127"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"20 February 2025","order":1,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"1 July 2025","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"16 July 2025","order":3,"name":"first_online","label":"First Online","group":{"name":"ArticleHistory","label":"Article History"}},{"order":1,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Declarations"}},{"value":"The study received full ethical clearance from the Human Research Ethics Committee of our university (Reference Number: ETH23-8018).","order":2,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Ethics approval and consent to participate"}},{"value":"All authors consent to publish.","order":3,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Consent for publication"}},{"value":"The authors declare no competing interests.","order":4,"name":"Ethics","group":{"name":"EthicsHeading","label":"Competing interests"}}],"article-number":"50"}}