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J. Neur. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> The prevalence of dementia is currently increasing worldwide. This syndrome produces a deterioration in cognitive function that cannot be reverted. However, an early diagnosis can be crucial for slowing its progress. The Clock Drawing Test (CDT) is a widely used paper-and-pencil test for cognitive assessment in which an individual has to manually draw a clock on a paper. There are a lot of scoring systems for this test and most of them depend on the subjective assessment of the expert. This study proposes a computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system based on artificial intelligence (AI) methods to analyze the CDT and obtain an automatic diagnosis of cognitive impairment (CI). This system employs a preprocessing pipeline in which the clock is detected, centered and binarized to decrease the computational burden. Then, the resulting image is fed into a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to identify the informative patterns within the CDT drawings that are relevant for the assessment of the patient\u2019s cognitive status. Performance is evaluated in a real context where patients with CI and controls have been classified by clinical experts in a balanced sample size of [Formula: see text] drawings. The proposed method provides an accuracy of [Formula: see text] in the binary case-control classification task, with an AUC of [Formula: see text]. These results are indeed relevant considering the use of the classic version of the CDT. The large size of the sample suggests that the method proposed has a high reliability to be used in clinical contexts and demonstrates the suitability of CAD systems in the CDT assessment process. Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) methods are applied to identify the most relevant regions during classification. Finding these patterns is extremely helpful to understand the brain damage caused by CI. A validation method using resubstitution with upper bound correction in a machine learning approach is also discussed. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1142\/s0129065723500156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,6]],"date-time":"2023-01-06T03:15:53Z","timestamp":1672974953000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Using Explainable Artificial Intelligence in the Clock Drawing Test to Reveal the Cognitive Impairment Pattern"],"prefix":"10.1142","volume":"33","author":[{"given":"Carmen","family":"Jim\u00e9nez-Mesa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Signal Theory, Networking and Communications, University of Granada, Granada 18010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan E.","family":"Arco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Signal Theory, Networking and Communications, University of Granada, Granada 18010, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Communications Engineering, University of Malaga, Malaga 29010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meritxell","family":"Valent\u00ed-Soler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Queen Sof\u00eda Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bel\u00e9n","family":"Frades-Payo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Queen Sof\u00eda Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda A.","family":"Zea-Sevilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Queen Sof\u00eda Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Communications Engineering, University of Malaga, Malaga 29010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"\u00c1vila-Villanueva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Queen Sof\u00eda Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Diego","family":"Castillo-Barnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Signal Theory, Networking and Communications, University of Granada, Granada 18010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Javier","family":"Ram\u00edrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Signal Theory, Networking and Communications, University of Granada, Granada 18010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Teodoro","family":"Del Ser-Quijano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Queen Sof\u00eda Foundation Alzheimer Center, Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Crist\u00f3bal","family":"Carnero-Pardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FIDYAN Neurocenter, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan M.","family":"G\u00f3rriz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DASCI) Institute, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Signal Theory, Networking and Communications, University of Granada, Granada 18010, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"219","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"S0129065723500156BIB001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-021-00269-y","volume":"7","author":"Knopman D. 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