{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T12:10:32Z","timestamp":1763467832124},"reference-count":11,"publisher":"World Scientific Pub Co Pte Ltd","issue":"06","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int. J. Artif. Intell. Tools"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing number of unsolicited e-mail messages (spam) reveals the need for the development of reliable anti-spam filters. The vast majority of content-based techniques rely on word-based representation of messages. Such approaches require reliable tokenizers for detecting the token boundaries. As a consequence, a common practice of spammers is to attempt to confuse tokenizers using unexpected punctuation marks or special characters within the message. In this paper we explore an alternative low-level representation based on character n-grams which avoids the use of tokenizers and other language-dependent tools. Based on experiments on two well-known benchmark corpora and a variety of evaluation measures, we show that character n-grams are more reliable features than word-tokens despite the fact that they increase the dimensionality of the problem. Moreover, we propose a method for extracting variable-length n-grams which produces optimal classifiers among the examined models under cost-sensitive evaluation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1142\/s0218213007003692","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,19]],"date-time":"2007-12-19T10:43:55Z","timestamp":1198061035000},"page":"1047-1067","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":67,"title":["WORDS VERSUS CHARACTER N-GRAMS FOR ANTI-SPAM FILTERING"],"prefix":"10.1142","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"IOANNIS","family":"KANARIS","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Systems Eng., University of the Aegean, Karlovassi, Samos \u2013 83200, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"KONSTANTINOS","family":"KANARIS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Systems Eng., University of the Aegean, Karlovassi, Samos \u2013 83200, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"IOANNIS","family":"HOUVARDAS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Systems Eng., University of the Aegean, Karlovassi, Samos \u2013 83200, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"EFSTATHIOS","family":"STAMATATOS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information and Communication Systems Eng., University of the Aegean, Karlovassi, Samos \u2013 83200, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"219","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"rf1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/505282.505283"},{"key":"rf4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022948414856"},{"key":"rf5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/72.788645"},{"key":"rf9","first-page":"419","volume":"2","author":"Lodhi H.","journal-title":"The Journal of Machine Learning Research"},{"key":"rf10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-2440-0"},{"key":"rf28","volume-title":"Data Mining: Practical Machine Learning Tools with Java Implementations","author":"Witten H.","year":"2000"},{"key":"rf30","first-page":"22","volume":"16","author":"Church K.","journal-title":"Computational Linguistics"},{"key":"rf32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.\u00a0Silva, Lecture Notes on Artificial Intelligence\u00a01695 (Springer, 1999)\u00a0pp. 113\u2013132.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-48159-1_9"},{"key":"rf33","series-title":"Series in Cognition and Perception","volume-title":"Signal Detection Theory and ROC Analysis","author":"Egan J.","year":"1975"},{"key":"rf34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007601015854"},{"key":"rf35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010920819831"}],"container-title":["International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.worldscientific.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1142\/S0218213007003692","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,15]],"date-time":"2023-05-15T10:26:14Z","timestamp":1684146374000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.worldscientific.com\/doi\/abs\/10.1142\/S0218213007003692"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,12]]},"references-count":11,"journal-issue":{"issue":"06","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1142\/S0218213007003692"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1142\/s0218213007003692","relation":{},"ISSN":["0218-2130","1793-6349"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0218-2130","type":"print"},{"value":"1793-6349","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,12]]}}}