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However, they have limited ability to generalize to novel scenarios, and require learning on high-quality force sensor training data that can be difficult to obtain. To address these challenges, this paper presents a novel vision-based contact-conditional approach for force estimation in telesurgical environments. Our method leverages supervised learning with human labels and end effector position data to train deep neural networks. Predictions from these trained models are optionally combined with robot joint torque information to estimate forces indirectly from visual data. We benchmark our method against ground truth force sensor data and demonstrate generality by fine-tuning to novel surgical scenarios in a data-efficient manner. Our methods demonstrated greater than 90% accuracy on contact detection and less than 10% force prediction error. These results suggest potential usefulness of contact-conditional force estimation for sensory substitution haptic feedback and tissue handling skill evaluation in clinical settings. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1142\/s2424905x24400087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,17]],"date-time":"2024-06-17T14:32:12Z","timestamp":1718634732000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Vision-Based Force Estimation for Minimally Invasive Telesurgery Through Contact Detection and Local Stiffness Models"],"prefix":"10.1142","volume":"09","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1472-6529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuyuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer and Data Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 321, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-2304-7653","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"My H.","family":"Le","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer and Data Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 321, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"},{"name":"Department of Electrical, Systems and Computer Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 321, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3603-8268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyle R.","family":"Golobish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 479, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-9892-3369","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan C.","family":"Beaver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Systems and Computer Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 321, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6101-5412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zonghe","family":"Chua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical, Systems and Computer Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave Glennan Building Room 321, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"219","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.16.3.252"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB002","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2016.2616874"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB003","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2022.3180052"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB004","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783649211052067"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB005","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urology.2005.06.084"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB006","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/end.2006.0239"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB007","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21037\/apc.2018.01.06"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB008","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bjs.1800840237"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2011.09.032"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB010","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.juro.2018.06.078"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB011","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA40945.2020.9197445"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2016.2640289"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB013","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2018.2810948"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB014","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s21010110"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB015","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA48506.2021.9560945"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB016","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2019.01.011"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB017","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMRB.2023.3295008"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB018","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-43987-2_48"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB019","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamasurg.2015.2405"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11701-018-0814-5"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB021","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtcvs.2004.05.029"},{"key":"S2424905X24400087BIB022","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Int. 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