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We tested and compared two types of spatial output devices that give route guidance information. One output display used a hand-held pointer, using a standard Talking Signs receiver that integrated the GPS signal information with the Talking Signs\u00ae signal information. This device gave travel instructions and on-course confirmation when pointed in the proper direction. The other spatial display used auditory virtual reality that presented the audible spatial information (waypoint direction and distance) through small air-tubes inserted into the ear. Travel times, distance, and errors were recorded. In addition, we tested users' ability to find precise locations, such as the intersections of small paths and a bus stop pole. Various subjective ratings were collected about blind participants' needs and perception of the various display and output options that they used. All subjects completed the tasks with both output displays, found all the waypoints and locations, and rated the two displays highly. The virtual sound display produced superior times overall and received slightly higher favorable ratings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/1141897.1141900","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,7,25]],"date-time":"2006-07-25T14:14:26Z","timestamp":1153836866000},"page":"110-124","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Evaluation of spatial displays for navigation without sight"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"James R.","family":"Marston","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA"}]},{"given":"Jack M.","family":"Loomis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA"}]},{"given":"Roberta L.","family":"Klatzky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA"}]},{"given":"Reginald G.","family":"Golledge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA"}]},{"given":"Ethan L.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University College London"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,4]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Northeast Bioengineering Conference. 33--34","author":"Brusnighan D. 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Develop. 36 , 4, 341 -- 355 .]] Crandall, W., Brabyn, J., Bentzen, B., and Myers, L. 1999. Remote infrared signage evaluation for transit stations and intersections. J. Rehabilitation Res. Develop. 36, 4, 341--355.]]","journal-title":"J. Rehabilitation Res. Develop."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","first-page":"6","article-title":"Getting from Point A to Point B: A review of two GPS systems","volume":"5","author":"Denham J.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Denham , J. , Leventhal , J. , and Mccomas , H. 2004 . Getting from Point A to Point B: A review of two GPS systems . AccessWorld 5 , 6 . (http:\/\/www.afb.org\/afbpress\/pub.asp?DocID=aw0506toc).]] Denham, J., Leventhal, J., and Mccomas, H. 2004. Getting from Point A to Point B: A review of two GPS systems. AccessWorld 5, 6. (http:\/\/www.afb.org\/afbpress\/pub.asp?DocID=aw0506toc).]]","journal-title":"AccessWorld"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC 1998","author":"Ertan S.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Ertan , S. , Lee , C. , Willets , A. , Tan , H. Z. , and Pentland , A. I . 1998. A wearable haptic navigation guidance system . In Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC 1998 ), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania , October 1998 , IEEE Computer Society Press, New York. 164--165.]] Ertan, S., Lee, C., Willets, A., Tan, H. Z., and Pentland, A. I. 1998. A wearable haptic navigation guidance system. 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Designing a personal guidance system to aid navigation without sight: Progress on the GIS component. Int. J. Geographic Information Systems 5, 373--395.]]","journal-title":"Int. J. Geographic Information Systems"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1080\/136588198241635","article-title":"A geographic information system for a GPS based personal guidance system","volume":"12","author":"Golledge R. G.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Golledge , R. G. , Klatzky , R. L. , Loomis , J. M. , Speigle , J. , and Tietz , J. 1998 . A geographic information system for a GPS based personal guidance system . Int. J. Geographical Information Science 12 , 727 -- 749 .]] Golledge, R. G., Klatzky, R. L., Loomis, J. M., Speigle, J., and Tietz, J. 1998. A geographic information system for a GPS based personal guidance system. Int. J. Geographical Information Science 12, 727--749.]]","journal-title":"Int. J. 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In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wearable Computer , October 2001 , Zurich, Switzerland.]] Helal, A., Moore, S., and Ramachandran, B. 2001. Drishti: An integrated navigation system for visually impaired and disabled. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Wearable Computer, October 2001, Zurich, Switzerland.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-624X(64)90382-8","article-title":"An ultrasonic sensing probe as a mobility aid for the blind","volume":"2","author":"Kay L.","year":"1964","unstructured":"Kay , L. 1964 . An ultrasonic sensing probe as a mobility aid for the blind . Ultrasonics 2 , 2, 53 -- 59 .]] Kay, L. 1964. An ultrasonic sensing probe as a mobility aid for the blind. 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Digital Map and Navigation System for the Visually Impaired (Unpublished manuscript): Department of Psychology , University of California , Santa Barbara, CA .]] Loomis, J. M. 1985. Digital Map and Navigation System for the Visually Impaired (Unpublished manuscript): Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the First Annual International ACM\/SIGCAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Marina Del Rey, California, October","author":"Loomis J. M.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Loomis , J. M. , Golledge , R. G. , Klatzky , R. L. , Speigle , J. , and Tietz , J . 1994 . In Proceedings of the First Annual International ACM\/SIGCAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Marina Del Rey, California, October November , 1994 , Association for Computer Machinery, New York. 85--90.]] 10.1145\/ 191028.191051 Loomis, J. M., Golledge, R. G., Klatzky, R. L., Speigle, J., and Tietz, J. 1994. In Proceedings of the First Annual International ACM\/SIGCAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Marina Del Rey, California, October November, 1994, Association for Computer Machinery, New York. 85--90.]] 10.1145\/191028.191051"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/105474698565677"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"Loomis J. M. Golledge R. G. and Klatzky R. L. 2001. GPS-based navigation systems for the visually impaired. In Fundamentals of Wearable Computers and Augmented Reality W. Barfiedls and T. Caudell Eds. Erlbaum. Mahway NJ. 429--446.]]  Loomis J. M. Golledge R. G. and Klatzky R. L. 2001. GPS-based navigation systems for the visually impaired. In Fundamentals of Wearable Computers and Augmented Reality W. Barfiedls and T. Caudell Eds. Erlbaum. Mahway NJ. 429--446.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/191028.191051"},{"volume-title":"Applied Spatial Cognition: From Research to Cognitive Technology","author":"Loomis J. M.","key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","unstructured":"Loomis , J. M. , Golledge , R. G. , Klatzky , R. L. , and Marston , J. R . In press. Assisting wayfinding in visually impaired travelers . In Applied Spatial Cognition: From Research to Cognitive Technology . G. Allen, Ed. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc . Mahwah NJ.]] Loomis, J. M., Golledge, R. G., Klatzky, R. L., and Marston, J. R. In press. Assisting wayfinding in visually impaired travelers. In Applied Spatial Cognition: From Research to Cognitive Technology. G. Allen, Ed. Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. Mahwah NJ.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the IEEE EMBS","author":"Makino H.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Makino , H. , Ishii , I. , and Nakashizuka , M . 1996. Development of navigation system for the blind using GPS and mobile phone connection . In Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the IEEE EMBS , Amsterdam, The Netherlands, October-- November , 1996 .]] Makino, H., Ishii, I., and Nakashizuka, M. 1996. Development of navigation system for the blind using GPS and mobile phone connection. In Proceedings of the 18th Annual Meeting of the IEEE EMBS, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, October--November, 1996.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1080\/09638280400014790","article-title":"A relative access measure to identify barriers to efficient transit use by persons with visual impairments","volume":"27","author":"Marston J. R.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Marston , J. R. and Church , R. L. 2005 . A relative access measure to identify barriers to efficient transit use by persons with visual impairments . Disability and Rehabilitation 27 , 13, 769 -- 779 .]] Marston, J. R. and Church, R. 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Impairment Blindness"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463300013084","article-title":"MoBIC: designing a travel aid for blind and elderly people","volume":"49","author":"Petrie H.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Petrie , H. , Johnson , V. , Strothotte , T. , Raab , A. , Fritz , S. , and Michel , R. 1996 . MoBIC: designing a travel aid for blind and elderly people . J. Navigation 49 , 45 -- 52 .]] Petrie, H., Johnson, V., Strothotte, T., Raab, A., Fritz, S., and Michel, R. 1996. MoBIC: designing a travel aid for blind and elderly people. J. Navigation 49, 45--52.]]","journal-title":"J. Navigation"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","volume-title":"Grasmere","author":"Talkenberg H.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Talkenberg , H. 1996 . Electronic Guide Dog---A technical approach on in-town navigation. Paper presented at The Rank Prize Funds Symposium on Technology to Assist the Blind and Visually Impaired , Grasmere , Cumbria, England , March, 1996.]] Talkenberg, H. 1996. Electronic Guide Dog---A technical approach on in-town navigation. Paper presented at The Rank Prize Funds Symposium on Technology to Assist the Blind and Visually Impaired, Grasmere, Cumbria, England, March, 1996.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Auditory Display ICAD2004 Sydney","author":"Walker B. N.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Walker , B. N. and Lindsay , J . 2004. Auditory navigation performance is affected by waypoint capture radius . In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Auditory Display ICAD2004 Sydney , Australia , July 2004 .]] Walker, B. N. and Lindsay, J. 2004. Auditory navigation performance is affected by waypoint capture radius. In Proceedings of the Tenth International Conference on Auditory Display ICAD2004 Sydney, Australia, July 2004.]]"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1518\/001872006777724507","article-title":"Navigation performance with a virtual auditory display: Effects of beacon sound, capture radius, and practice","volume":"48","author":"Walker B. N.","year":"2006","unstructured":"Walker , B. N. and Lindsay , J. 2006 . Navigation performance with a virtual auditory display: Effects of beacon sound, capture radius, and practice . Human Factors 48 , 2, 286 -- 299 .]] Walker, B. N. and Lindsay, J. 2006. Navigation performance with a virtual auditory display: Effects of beacon sound, capture radius, and practice. 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