{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,12]],"date-time":"2026-02-12T08:10:31Z","timestamp":1770883831152,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,9,1]],"date-time":"2009-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1251763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["4.06E+19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4.06E+19"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Novices face many barriers when learning to program a computer, including the need to learn both a new syntax and a model of computation. By constraining syntax and providing concrete visual representations on which to operate, direct manipulation programming environments can potentially lower these barriers. However, what if the ultimate learning goal of the novice is to be able to program in conventional textual languages, as is the case for introductory computer science students? Can direct manipulation programming environments lower the initial barriers to programming, and, at the same time, facilitate positive transfer to textual programming? To address this question, we designed a new direct manipulation programming interface for novices, and conducted an experimental study to compare the programming processes and outcomes promoted by the direct manipulation interface against those promoted by a textual programming interface. We found that the direct manipulation interface promoted significantly better initial programming outcomes, positive transfer to the textual interface, and significant differences in programming processes. Our results show that direct manipulation interfaces can provide novices with a \u201cway in\u201d to traditional textual programming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/1592440.1592442","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,9,22]],"date-time":"2009-09-22T14:09:47Z","timestamp":1253628587000},"page":"1-40","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Can direct manipulation lower the barriers to computer programming and promote transfer of training?"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Christopher D.","family":"Hundhausen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sean F.","family":"Farley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan L.","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Washington State University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","volume-title":"Observing Iteraction: An Introduction to Sequential Analysis","author":"Bakeman R.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Bakeman , R. and Gottman , J. M . 1996 . Observing Iteraction: An Introduction to Sequential Analysis . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge, UK . Bakeman, R. and Gottman, J. M. 1996. Observing Iteraction: An Introduction to Sequential Analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1083431.1083474"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1315(02)00076-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1089786.1089794"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","first-page":"130","article-title":"Together is better: Strengthening the confidence of women in computer science via a learning community","volume":"19","author":"Besana G.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Besana , G. and Dettori , L. 2004 . Together is better: Strengthening the confidence of women in computer science via a learning community . J. Comput. Sci. Colleges 19 , 130 -- 139 . Besana, G. and Dettori, L. 2004. Together is better: Strengthening the confidence of women in computer science via a learning community. J. Comput. Sci. Colleges 19, 130--139.","journal-title":"J. Comput. Sci. Colleges"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VLHCC.2005.15"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/274444.274445"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","unstructured":"Card S. K. Moran T. P. and Newell A. 1983. The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale NJ.   Card S. K. Moran T. P. and Newell A. 1983. The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1047344.1047411"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","volume-title":"Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration","author":"Cypher A.","unstructured":"Cypher , A. 1993. Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration . The MIT Press , Cambridge, MA . Cypher, A. 1993. Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/343048.343070"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/225434.225455"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the National Educational Computing Conference.","author":"Goldenson D. R.","year":"1996","unstructured":"Goldenson , D. R. 1996 . Why teach programming&quest; Some evidence about generalization and transfer . In Proceedings of the National Educational Computing Conference. Goldenson, D. R. 1996. Why teach programming&quest; Some evidence about generalization and transfer. In Proceedings of the National Educational Computing Conference."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Empirical Studies of Programmers: 4th Workshop. 99--120","author":"Goldenson D. R.","unstructured":"Goldenson , D. R. and Wang , B. J . 1991. Use of structure editing tools by novice programmers . In Proceedings of the Empirical Studies of Programmers: 4th Workshop. 99--120 . Goldenson, D. R. and Wang, B. J. 1991. Use of structure editing tools by novice programmers. In Proceedings of the Empirical Studies of Programmers: 4th Workshop. 99--120."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jvlc.1996.0009"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1240624.1240865"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","volume-title":"Introduction to Computing and Programming in Python: A Multimedia Approach","author":"Guzdial M.","unstructured":"Guzdial , M. 2004a. Introduction to Computing and Programming in Python: A Multimedia Approach . Prentice Hall , Upper Saddle River, NJ. Guzdial, M. 2004a. Introduction to Computing and Programming in Python: A Multimedia Approach. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Programming environments for novices","author":"Guzdial M.","unstructured":"Guzdial , M. 2004b. Programming environments for novices . In Computer Science Education Research, S. Fincher and M. Petre, Eds. Taylor and Francis , London , 128--154. Guzdial, M. 2004b. Programming environments for novices. In Computer Science Education Research, S. Fincher and M. Petre, Eds. Taylor and Francis, London, 128--154."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1076\/ilee.6.1.143.3609"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/971300.971433"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.84.2.289"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VLHCC.2005.72"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvlc.2006.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvlc.2006.03.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2006.06.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1148493.1148521"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1151588.1151599"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VLHCC.2006.12"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","unstructured":"Hundhausen C. D. Farley S. and Brown J. L. 2008. Using semantic components analysis to study the temporal evolution of computer code: Video analysis manual Ver. 2.8. http:\/\/eecs.wsu.edu\/~veupl\/pub\/VideoAnalysisManual-v2.8.doc. (Accessed December 2008.)  Hundhausen C. D. Farley S. and Brown J. L. 2008. Using semantic components analysis to study the temporal evolution of computer code: Video analysis manual Ver. 2.8. http:\/\/eecs.wsu.edu\/~veupl\/pub\/VideoAnalysisManual-v2.8.doc. (Accessed December 2008.)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327051hci0104_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1089733.1089734"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","unstructured":"Lego Systems Inc. 2008. Lego mindstorms NXT robotics invention system. http:\/\/mindstorms.lego.com.  Lego Systems Inc. 2008. Lego mindstorms NXT robotics invention system. http:\/\/mindstorms.lego.com."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","volume-title":"Tinker: A programming by demonstration system for beginners. In Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration","author":"Lieberman H.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Lieberman , H. 1993 . Tinker: A programming by demonstration system for beginners. In Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration , C. Cypher, Ed. MIT Press, Cambridge , MA , 47--65. Lieberman, H. 1993. Tinker: A programming by demonstration system for beginners. In Watch What I Do: Programming by Demonstration, C. Cypher, Ed. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 47--65."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","unstructured":"MicroSoft Corporation. 2006. Microsoft PowerPoint 2007. http:\/\/office.microsoft.com\/en-us\/powerpoint\/default.aspx  MicroSoft Corporation. 2006. Microsoft PowerPoint 2007. http:\/\/office.microsoft.com\/en-us\/powerpoint\/default.aspx"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1049482940040202"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/264645.264659"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages. IEEE Computer Society Press","author":"Myers B.","unstructured":"Myers , B. , Chandhok , R. , and Sareen , A . 1988. Automatic data visualizations for novice Pascal programmers . In Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages. IEEE Computer Society Press , Los Alamitos, CA. Myers, B., Chandhok, R., and Sareen, A. 1988. Automatic data visualizations for novice Pascal programmers. In Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Visual Languages. IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Norman D. and Draper S. 1986. User-Centered System Design. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah NJ.  Norman D. and Draper S. 1986. User-Centered System Design. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mahwah NJ.","DOI":"10.1201\/b15703"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","unstructured":"Ormerod T. C. and Ball L. J. 1993. Does programming knowledge or design strategy determine shifts of focus in Prolog programming&quest; In Proceedings of the Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop 162--186.  Ormerod T. C. and Ball L. J. 1993. Does programming knowledge or design strategy determine shifts of focus in Prolog programming&quest; In Proceedings of the Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop 162--186."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","volume-title":"Imagery, Memory, and Cognition: Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio","author":"Paivio A.","unstructured":"Paivio , A. 1983. The empirical case for dual coding . In Imagery, Memory, and Cognition: Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio , J. C. Yuille, Ed., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates , Hillsdale, NJ . Paivio, A. 1983. The empirical case for dual coding. In Imagery, Memory, and Cognition: Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio, J. C. Yuille, Ed., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543060001065"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages. IEEE","author":"Pandey R. K.","unstructured":"Pandey , R. K. and Burnett , M. M . 1993. Is it easier to write matrix manipulation programs visually or textually&quest; An empirical study . In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 344--351. Pandey, R. K. and Burnett, M. M. 1993. Is it easier to write matrix manipulation programs visually or textually&quest; An empirical study. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Visual Languages. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 344--351."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"Proceedings IEEE Symposia on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments. IEEE Computer Society","author":"Pane J. F.","unstructured":"Pane , J. F. , Myers , B. A. , and Miller , L. B . 2002. Using HCI techniques to design a more usable programming system . In Proceedings IEEE Symposia on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments. IEEE Computer Society , Los Alamitos, CA, 198--206. Pane, J. F., Myers, B. A., and Miller, L. B. 2002. Using HCI techniques to design a more usable programming system. In Proceedings IEEE Symposia on Human-Centric Computing Languages and Environments. IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA, 198--206."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","unstructured":"Perkins D. N. and Martin F. 1986. Fragile knowledge and neglected strategies in novice programmers. In Empirical Studies of Programmers. Ablex Norwood NJ 213--229.   Perkins D. N. and Martin F. 1986. Fragile knowledge and neglected strategies in novice programmers. In Empirical Studies of Programmers. Ablex Norwood NJ 213--229."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci1203_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.83.3.318"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/774833.774835"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VLHCC.2005.34"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop. Ablex","author":"Scholtz J.","unstructured":"Scholtz , J. and Wiedenbeck , S . 1993. An analysis of novice programmers learning a second language . In Proceedings of Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop. Ablex , Norwood, NJ, 187--205. Scholtz, J. and Wiedenbeck, S. 1993. An analysis of novice programmers learning a second language. In Proceedings of Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop. Ablex, Norwood, NJ, 187--205."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447319009525970"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.1983.1654471"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","unstructured":"Singley M. and Anderson J. R. 1989. The Transfer of Cognitive Skill. Harvard University Press Cambridge MA.   Singley M. and Anderson J. R. 1989. The Transfer of Cognitive Skill. Harvard University Press Cambridge MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/176789.176795"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/182.358436"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","unstructured":"Soloway E. Ehrlich K. Bonar J. and Greenspan J. 1984. What do novices know about programming&quest; In Directions in Human-Computer Interaction A. Badre and B. Shneiderman Eds. Ablex Norwood NJ 27--54.  Soloway E. Ehrlich K. Bonar J. and Greenspan J. 1984. What do novices know about programming&quest; In Directions in Human-Computer Interaction A. Badre and B. Shneiderman Eds. Ablex Norwood NJ 27--54."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","unstructured":"SPSS Inc. 2008. SPSS statistics 17.0. http:\/\/www.spss.com. (Accessed January 2009.)  SPSS Inc. 2008. SPSS statistics 17.0. http:\/\/www.spss.com. (Accessed January 2009.)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/108844.108930"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","unstructured":"TechSmith Corporation. 2007. Morae recorder. http:\/\/www.morae.com. (Accessed December 2007.)  TechSmith Corporation. 2007. Morae recorder. http:\/\/www.morae.com. (Accessed December 2007.)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","first-page":"147","article-title":"Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Edu","volume":"17","author":"van Merrienboer J. J. G.","year":"2005","unstructured":"van Merrienboer , J. J. G. and Sweller , J. 2005 . Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Edu . Psych. Rev. 17 , 147 -- 177 . van Merrienboer, J. J. G. and Sweller, J. 2005. Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Edu. Psych. Rev. 17, 147--177.","journal-title":"Psych. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jvlc.1996.0030"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/1592440.1592442","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/1592440.1592442","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T12:17:47Z","timestamp":1750249067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/1592440.1592442"}},"subtitle":["An experimental study"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,9]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2009,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/1592440.1592442"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1592440.1592442","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-0516","1557-7325"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-0516","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7325","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2009,9]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2007-12-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2009-06-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2009-09-24","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}