{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,27]],"date-time":"2026-01-27T15:28:21Z","timestamp":1769527701533,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,2,1]],"date-time":"2010-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1264982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004965","name":"Sixth Framework Programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FP6-511092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FP6-511092"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004965","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Appl. Percept."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>For us humans, walking is our most natural way of moving through the world. One of the major challenges in present research on navigation in virtual reality is to enable users to physically walk through virtual environments. Although treadmills, in principle, allow users to walk for extended periods of time through large virtual environments, existing setups largely fail to produce a truly immersive sense of navigation. Partially, this is because of inadequate control of treadmill speed as a function of walking behavior. Here, we present a new control algorithm that allows users to walk naturally on a treadmill, including starting to walk from standstill, stopping, and varying walking speed. The treadmill speed control consists of a feedback loop based on the measured user position relative to a given reference position, plus a feed-forward term based on online estimation of the user's walking velocity. The purpose of this design is to make the treadmill compensate fully for any persistent walker motion, while keeping the accelerations exerted on the user as low as possible.<\/jats:p>\n          <jats:p>We evaluated the performance of the algorithm by conducting a behavioral experiment in which we varied its most important parameters. Participants walked at normal walking speed and then, on an auditory cue, abruptly stopped. After being brought back to the center of the treadmill by the control algorithm, they rated how smoothly the treadmill had changed its velocity in response to the change in walking speed. Ratings, in general, were quite high, indicating good control performance. Moreover, ratings clearly depended on the control algorithm parameters that were varied. Ratings were especially affected by the way the treadmill reversed its direction of motion. In conclusion, controlling treadmill speed in such a way that changes in treadmill speed are unobtrusive and do not disturb VR immersiveness is feasible on a normal treadmill with a straightforward control algorithm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/1670671.1670675","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,2,23]],"date-time":"2010-02-23T15:11:38Z","timestamp":1266937898000},"page":"1-14","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":57,"title":["Making virtual walking real"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Jan L.","family":"Souman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}]},{"given":"Paolo Robuffo","family":"Giordano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DIS, Universit\u00e0 di Roma \u201cLa Sapienza\u201d, Roma, Italy and Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}]},{"given":"Ilja","family":"Frissen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, T\u00fcbingen, Germany and McGill University, Montreal, Canada"}]},{"given":"Alessandro De","family":"Luca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DIS, Universit\u00e0 di Roma \u201cLa Sapienza\u201d, Roma, Italy"}]},{"given":"Marc O.","family":"Ernst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, T\u00fcbingen, Germany"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2004.079525"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the EuroHaptics Conference. IEEE","author":"Checcacci D.","unstructured":"Checcacci , D. , Hollerbach , J. M. , Hayward , R. , and Bergamasco , M . 2003. Design and analysis of a harness for torso force application in locomotion interfaces . In Proceedings of the EuroHaptics Conference. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 53--67. Checcacci, D., Hollerbach, J. M., Hayward, R., and Bergamasco, M. 2003. Design and analysis of a harness for torso force application in locomotion interfaces. In Proceedings of the EuroHaptics Conference. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 53--67."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/105474600566574"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/263407.263550"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2006.1642241"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Robot Control. IEEE","author":"De Luca A.","year":"2006","unstructured":"De Luca , A. , Mattone , R. , and Robuffo Giordano , P. 2006 b. Feedback\/feedforward schemes for motion control of the CyberCarpet . In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Robot Control. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA. De Luca, A., Mattone, R., and Robuffo Giordano, P. 2006b. Feedback\/feedforward schemes for motion control of the CyberCarpet. In Proceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Robot Control. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2007.363667"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.31.3.398"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/903893.903929"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2006.05.063"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Haptics Symposium, ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division. IEEE","author":"Hollerbach J. M.","unstructured":"Hollerbach , J. M. , Xu , Y. , Christensen , R. , and Jacobsen , S. C . 2000. Design specifications for the second generation Sarcos Treadport locomotion interface . In Proceedings of the Haptics Symposium, ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 69--2, 1293--1298. Hollerbach, J. M., Xu, Y., Christensen, R., and Jacobsen, S. C. 2000. Design specifications for the second generation Sarcos Treadport locomotion interface. In Proceedings of the Haptics Symposium, ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 69--2, 1293--1298."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMM.2003.808822"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","volume-title":"Walking about virtual environments on an infinite floor","author":"Iwata H.","unstructured":"Iwata , H. 1999. Walking about virtual environments on an infinite floor . IEEE Virtual Reality , 286--293. Iwata, H. 1999. Walking about virtual environments on an infinite floor. IEEE Virtual Reality, 286--293."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200006050-00029"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Krsti\u0107 M. Kanellakopoulos I. and Kokotovi\u0107 P. 1995. Nonlinear and Adaptive Control Design. John Wiley &amp; Sons New York.   Krsti\u0107 M. Kanellakopoulos I. and Kokotovi\u0107 P. 1995. Nonlinear and Adaptive Control Design. John Wiley &amp; Sons New York."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1227134.1227141"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00128.2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s002210100735"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE","author":"Moghaddam M. M.","unstructured":"Moghaddam , M. M. , and Buehler , M . 1993. Control of virtual motion systems . In Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 63--67. Moghaddam, M. M., and Buehler, M. 1993. Control of virtual motion systems. In Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 63--67."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1227134.1227138"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","unstructured":"Nagamori A. Wakabayashi K. and Ito M. 2005. The ball array treadmill: A locomotion interface for virtual worlds. IEEE Virtual Reality 3--6.  Nagamori A. Wakabayashi K. and Ito M. 2005. The ball array treadmill: A locomotion interface for virtual worlds. IEEE Virtual Reality 3--6."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th Annual Symposium on Haptic Interface for Virtual Environments and Teleoperated Systems. IEEE","author":"Noma H.","unstructured":"Noma , H. , and Miyasato , T . 1998. Design for locomotion interface in a large scale virtual environment ATLAS: ATR locomotion interface for active self motion . In Proceedings of the 7th Annual Symposium on Haptic Interface for Virtual Environments and Teleoperated Systems. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 64, 111--118. Noma, H., and Miyasato, T. 1998. Design for locomotion interface in a large scale virtual environment ATLAS: ATR locomotion interface for active self motion. In Proceedings of the 7th Annual Symposium on Haptic Interface for Virtual Environments and Teleoperated Systems. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 64, 111--118."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Conference. IEEE","author":"Noma H.","unstructured":"Noma , H. , Sugihara , T. , and Miyasato , T . 2000. Development of ground surface simulator for Tel-E-Merge system . In Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Conference. IEEE , Los Alamitos, CA, 217--224. Noma, H., Sugihara, T., and Miyasato, T. 2000. Development of ground surface simulator for Tel-E-Merge system. In Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Conference. IEEE, Los Alamitos, CA, 217--224."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-6911(97)00119-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.21.3.480"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Applied Perception"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/1670671.1670675","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/1670671.1670675","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T12:40:53Z","timestamp":1750250453000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/1670671.1670675"}},"subtitle":["Perceptual evaluation of a new treadmill control algorithm"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/1670671.1670675"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/1670671.1670675","relation":{},"ISSN":["1544-3558","1544-3965"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1544-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1544-3965","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2008-01-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2009-02-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2010-02-25","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}