{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T12:11:20Z","timestamp":1780056680591,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2012,12,1]],"date-time":"2012-12-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1354320000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            We establish that two-part models of pointing performance (Welford\u2019s model) describe pointing on a computer display significantly better than traditional one-part models (Fitts\u2019s Law). We explore the space of pointing models and describe how independent contributions of movement amplitude and target width to pointing time can be captured in a parameter\n            <jats:italic>k<\/jats:italic>\n            . Through a reanalysis of data from related work we demonstrate that one-part formulations are fragile in describing pointing performance, and that this fragility is present for various devices and techniques. We show that this same data can be significantly better described using two-part models. Finally, we demonstrate through further analysis of previous work and new experimental data that\n            <jats:italic>k<\/jats:italic>\n            increases linearly with gain. Our primary contribution is the demonstration that Fitts\u2019s Law is more limited in applicability than previously appreciated, and that more robust models, such as Welford\u2019s formulation, should be adopted in many cases of practical interest.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/2395131.2395135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,1,11]],"date-time":"2013-01-11T15:42:48Z","timestamp":1357918968000},"page":"1-34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Two-Part Models Capture the Impact of Gain on Pointing Performance"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Garth","family":"Shoemaker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of British Columbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Takayuki","family":"Tsukitani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Osaka University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yoshifumi","family":"Kitamura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tohoku University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kellogg S.","family":"Booth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of British Columbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/258734.258875"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TAC.1974.1100705"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139508925152"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089003200604"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 57--64","author":"Baudisch P.","unstructured":"Baudisch , P. , Cutrell , E. , Robbins , D. , Czerwinski , M. , Tandler , P. , Bederson , B. , and Zierlinger , A . 2003. Drag-and-pop and drag-and-pick: Techniques for accessing remote screen content on touch- and pen-operated systems . In Proceedings of International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 57--64 . Baudisch, P., Cutrell, E., Robbins, D., Czerwinski, M., Tandler, P., Bederson, B., and Zierlinger, A. 2003. Drag-and-pop and drag-and-pick: Techniques for accessing remote screen content on touch- and pen-operated systems. In Proceedings of International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 57--64."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1054972.1055023"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201991","author":"Boritz J.","unstructured":"Boritz , J. , Booth , K. S. , and Cowan , W. B . 1991. Fitts\u2019 law studies of directional mouse movement . In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201991 . 216--223. Boritz, J., Booth, K. S., and Cowan, W. B. 1991. Fitts\u2019 law studies of directional mouse movement. In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201991. 216--223."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1031607.1031616"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2008.4523043"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140137808931762"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2047196.2047276"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07370020802278163"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1993060.1993063"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1240624.1240714"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/302979.303042"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Draper N. R. and Smith H. 1998. Applied Regression Analysis 3rd Ed. Wiley-Interscience. Draper N. R. and Smith H. 1998. Applied Regression Analysis 3rd Ed. Wiley-Interscience.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118625590"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1753846.1753867"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128603000403"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 338--355","author":"Fernquist J.","unstructured":"Fernquist , J. , Shoemaker , G. , and Booth , K. S. 2011. \u201cOh Snap\u201d -- Helping users align digital objects on touch interfaces . In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 338--355 . Fernquist, J., Shoemaker, G., and Booth, K. S. 2011. \u201cOh Snap\u201d -- Helping users align digital objects on touch interfaces. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 338--355."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0055392"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1357054.1357299"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1240624.1240726"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X374965"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/238386.238532"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/985692.985749"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1518701.1518980"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/302979.303128"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting. 267--271","author":"Han S. H.","unstructured":"Han , S. H. , Jorna , G. C. , Miller , R. H. , and Tan , K. C . 1990. A comparison of four input devices for the macintosh interface . In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting. 267--271 . Han, S. H., Jorna, G. C., Miller, R. H., and Tan, K. C. 1990. A comparison of four input devices for the macintosh interface. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting. 267--271."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139108967324"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The inaccuracy of movement","volume":"13","author":"Hollingworth H. L.","year":"1909","unstructured":"Hollingworth , H. L. 1909 . The inaccuracy of movement . Arch. Psych. 13 , 1 -- 87 . Hollingworth, H. L. 1909. The inaccuracy of movement. Arch. Psych. 13, 1--87.","journal-title":"Arch. Psych."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/502907.502908"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/642611.642622"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/371127.371146"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/964696.964714"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201994","author":"Johnsgard T.","year":"1994","unstructured":"Johnsgard , T. 1994 . Fitts\u2019 law with a virtual reality glove and a mouse: Effects of gain . In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201994 . 8--15. Johnsgard, T. 1994. Fitts\u2019 law with a virtual reality glove and a mouse: Effects of gain. In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201994. 8--15."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1989.69.3f.1259"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2190\/2WBH-V235-YA82-VNMC"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.1973.10734962"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.28.3.515"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1029632.1029655"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1090785.1090802"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2010.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.1976.10735061"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327051hci0701_3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/142750.142794"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0953-5438(94)90025-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1357054.1357308"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01449299408914613"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI\u201993)","author":"MacKenzie I. S.","unstructured":"MacKenzie , I. S. and Ware , C . 1993. Lag as a determinant on human performance in interactive systems . In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI\u201993) . 488--493. MacKenzie, I. S. and Ware, C. 1993. Lag as a determinant on human performance in interactive systems. In Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI\u201993). 488--493."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/108844.108868"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/357423.357430"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1121112.1121115"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/238386.238533"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/503376.503383"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/302979.303108"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/985692.985738"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1054972.1055013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03194076"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/3468.747855"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intcom.2004.07.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 701--706","author":"Rutledge J. D.","unstructured":"Rutledge , J. D. and Selker , T . 1990. Force-to-motion functions for pointing . In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 701--706 . Rutledge, J. D. and Selker, T. 1990. Force-to-motion functions for pointing. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 701--706."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2005.03.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.86.5.415"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14640747608400584"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1176344136"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1031607.1031655"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1294211.1294221"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201909","author":"Shoemaker G.","unstructured":"Shoemaker , G. , Findlater , L. , Dawson , J. Q. , and Booth , K. S . 2009. Mid-air text input techniques for very large wall displays . In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201909 . 231--238. Shoemaker, G., Findlater, L., Dawson, J. Q., and Booth, K. S. 2009. Mid-air text input techniques for very large wall displays. In Proceedings of Graphics Interface \u201909. 231--238."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1868914.1868967"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2004.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","unstructured":"Strunk W. Jr. and White E. B. 1979. The Elements of Style 3rd Ed. Macmillan New York. Strunk W. Jr. and White E. B. 1979. The Elements of Style 3rd Ed. Macmillan New York."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1531674.1531697"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","first-page":"1495","article-title":"A Fitts\u2019 law analysis of shadow metaphor mid-air pointing on a very large wall display","volume":"52","author":"Tsukitani T.","year":"2011","unstructured":"Tsukitani , T. , Shoemaker , G. , Booth , K. S. , Takashima , K. , Itoh , Y. , Kitamura , Y. , and Kishino , F. 2011 . A Fitts\u2019 law analysis of shadow metaphor mid-air pointing on a very large wall display . IPSJ Journal 52 , 4, 1495 -- 1503 . Tsukitani, T., Shoemaker, G., Booth, K. S., Takashima, K., Itoh, Y., Kitamura, Y., and Kishino, F. 2011. A Fitts\u2019 law analysis of shadow metaphor mid-air pointing on a very large wall display. IPSJ Journal 52, 4, 1495--1503.","journal-title":"IPSJ Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","volume-title":"Fundamentals of Skill","author":"Welford A. T.","unstructured":"Welford , A. T. 1971. Fundamentals of Skill . Methuen , London . Welford, A. T. 1971. Fundamentals of Skill. Methuen, London."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1357054.1357306"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The accuracy of voluntary movement","volume":"3","author":"Woodworth R. S.","year":"1899","unstructured":"Woodworth , R. S. 1899 . The accuracy of voluntary movement . Psych. Rev. 3 , 1 -- 114 . Woodworth, R. S. 1899. The accuracy of voluntary movement. Psych. Rev. 3, 1--114.","journal-title":"Psych. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/642611.642644"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2004.09.007"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2395131.2395135","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/2395131.2395135","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T08:35:17Z","timestamp":1750235717000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2395131.2395135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,12]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,12]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/2395131.2395135"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2395131.2395135","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-0516","1557-7325"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-0516","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7325","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2012,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2011-05-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2012-08-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2012-12-01","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}