{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T21:29:12Z","timestamp":1791926952306,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,1]],"date-time":"2013-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1372636800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Interact. Intell. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In face-to-face conversations, speakers are continuously checking whether the listener is engaged in the conversation, and they change their conversational strategy if the listener is not fully engaged. With the goal of building a conversational agent that can adaptively control conversations, in this study we analyze listener gaze behaviors and develop a method for estimating whether a listener is engaged in the conversation on the basis of these behaviors. First, we conduct a Wizard-of-Oz study to collect information on a user's gaze behaviors. We then investigate how conversational disengagement, as annotated by human judges, correlates with gaze transition, mutual gaze (eye contact) occurrence, gaze duration, and eye movement distance. On the basis of the results of these analyses, we identify useful information for estimating a user's disengagement and establish an engagement estimation method using a decision tree technique. The results of these analyses show that a model using the features of gaze transition, mutual gaze occurrence, gaze duration, and eye movement distance provides the best performance and can estimate the user's conversational engagement accurately. The estimation model is then implemented as a real-time disengagement judgment mechanism and incorporated into a multimodal dialog manager in an animated conversational agent. This agent is designed to estimate the user's conversational engagement and generate probing questions when the user is distracted from the conversation. Finally, we evaluate the engagement-sensitive agent and find that asking probing questions at the proper times has the expected effects on the user's verbal\/nonverbal behaviors during communication with the agent. We also find that our agent system improves the user's impression of the agent in terms of its engagement awareness, behavior appropriateness, conversation smoothness, favorability, and intelligence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/2499474.2499480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,1]],"date-time":"2013-08-01T15:14:00Z","timestamp":1375370040000},"page":"1-25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Gaze awareness in conversational agents"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Ryo","family":"Ishii","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kyoto University, Seikei University, and NTT Corporation, Kyoto, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yukiko I.","family":"Nakano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seikei University, Tokyo, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Toyoaki","family":"Nishida","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03211866"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/semi.1973.7.1.19"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_3_1","unstructured":"Argyle M. and Cook M. 1976. 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