{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:20:07Z","timestamp":1750306807652,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,29]],"date-time":"2014-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1419811200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Intell. Syst. Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In this article, we study automated agents that are designed to encourage humans to take some actions over others by strategically disclosing key pieces of information. To this end, we utilize the framework of persuasion games\u2014a branch of game theory that deals with asymmetric interactions where one player (Sender) possesses more information about the world, but it is only the other player (Receiver) who can take an action. In particular, we use an extended persuasion model, where the Sender\u2019s information is imperfect and the Receiver has more than two alternative actions available. We design a computational algorithm that, from the Sender\u2019s standpoint, calculates the optimal information disclosure rule. The algorithm is parameterized by the Receiver\u2019s decision model (i.e., what choice he will make based on the information disclosed by the Sender) and can be retuned accordingly.<\/jats:p><jats:p>We then provide an extensive experimental study of the algorithm\u2019s performance in interactions with human Receivers. First, we consider a fully rational (in the Bayesian sense) Receiver decision model and experimentally show the efficacy of the resulting Sender\u2019s solution in a routing domain. Despite the discrepancy in the Sender\u2019s and the Receiver\u2019s utilities from each of the Receiver\u2019s choices, our Sender agent successfully persuaded human Receivers to select an option more beneficial for the agent. Dropping the Receiver\u2019s rationality assumption, we introduce a machine learning procedure that generates a more realistic human Receiver model. We then show its significant benefit to the Sender solution by repeating our routing experiment. To complete our study, we introduce a second (supply--demand) experimental domain and, by contrasting it with the routing domain, obtain general guidelines for a Sender on how to construct a Receiver model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/2558397","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,5]],"date-time":"2015-01-05T13:27:09Z","timestamp":1420464429000},"page":"1-21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Strategic Information Disclosure to People with Multiple Alternatives"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Amos","family":"Azaria","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bar-Ilan University, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zinovi","family":"Rabinovich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent researcher, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claudia V.","family":"Goldman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"General Motors Advanced Technical Center, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarit","family":"Kraus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bar-Ilan University, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,29]]},"reference":[{"volume-title":"Retrieved","year":"2013","key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"Amazon. 2013 . Mechanical Turk Services . Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/www.mturk.com\/. Amazon. 2013. Mechanical Turk Services. Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/www.mturk.com\/."},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912)","author":"Azaria A.","key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","unstructured":"A. Azaria , Y. Aumann , and S. Kraus . 2012a. Automated strategies for determining rewards for human work . In Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912) . A. Azaria, Y. Aumann, and S. Kraus. 2012a. Automated strategies for determining rewards for human work. In Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912)."},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 25th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAI\u201911)","author":"Azaria A.","key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","unstructured":"A. Azaria , Z. Rabinovich , S. Kraus , and C. V. Goldman . 2011. Strategic information disclosure to people with multiple alternatives . In Proceedings of the 25th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAI\u201911) . A. Azaria, Z. Rabinovich, S. Kraus, and C. V. Goldman. 2011. Strategic information disclosure to people with multiple alternatives. In Proceedings of the 25th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAI\u201911)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912)","author":"Azaria A.","year":"2074","unstructured":"A. Azaria , Z. Rabinovich , S. Kraus , C. V. Goldman , and Y. Gal . 2012b. Strategic advice provision in repeated human-agent interactions . In Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912) . 2074 2. A. Azaria, Z. Rabinovich, S. Kraus, C. V. Goldman, and Y. Gal. 2012b. Strategic advice provision in repeated human-agent interactions. In Proceedings of the 26th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201912). 20742."},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS\u201912)","author":"Azaria A.","key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","unstructured":"A. Azaria , Z. Rabinovich , S. Kraus , C. V. Goldman , and O. Tsimhoni . 2012c. Giving advice to people in path selection problems . In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS\u201912) . 459--466. A. Azaria, Z. Rabinovich, S. Kraus, C. V. Goldman, and O. Tsimhoni. 2012c. Giving advice to people in path selection problems. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems (AAMAS\u201912). 459--466."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.obhdp.2006.07.001"},{"volume-title":"ultimatum, and trust games. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction","author":"Camerer C. F.","key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","unstructured":"C. F. Camerer . 2003. Dictator , ultimatum, and trust games. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction . Princeton University Press , Princeton, NJ , 43--117. C. F. Camerer. 2003. Dictator, ultimatum, and trust games. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 43--117."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","first-page":"335","article-title":"Travel information as an instrument to change car drivers travel choices: A literature review","volume":"6","author":"Chorus C. G.","year":"2006","unstructured":"C. G. Chorus , E. J. Molin , and B. van Wee . 2006 . Travel information as an instrument to change car drivers travel choices: A literature review . European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 6 , 4, 335 -- 364 . C. G. Chorus, E. J. Molin, and B. van Wee. 2006. Travel information as an instrument to change car drivers travel choices: A literature review. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 6, 4, 335--364.","journal-title":"European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1913390"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04766"},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI\u201912)","author":"Fenster M.","key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","unstructured":"M. Fenster , I. Zuckerman , and S. Kraus . 2012. Guiding user choice during discussion by silence, examples and justifications . In Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI\u201912) . M. Fenster, I. Zuckerman, and S. Kraus. 2012. Guiding user choice during discussion by silence, examples and justifications. In Proceedings of the 20th European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI\u201912)."},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 22nd National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201907)","author":"Gal Y.","key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","unstructured":"Y. Gal and A. Pfeffer . 2007. Modeling reciprocal behavior in human bilateral negotiation . In Proceedings of the 22nd National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201907) . 815--820. Y. Gal and A. Pfeffer. 2007. Modeling reciprocal behavior in human bilateral negotiation. In Proceedings of the 22nd National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201907). 815--820."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","first-page":"395","article-title":"A study in the pragmatics of persuasion: A game theoretical approach","volume":"1","author":"Glazer J.","year":"2006","unstructured":"J. Glazer and A. Rubinstein . 2006 . A study in the pragmatics of persuasion: A game theoretical approach . Theoretical Economics 1 , 395 -- 410 . J. Glazer and A. Rubinstein. 2006. A study in the pragmatics of persuasion: A game theoretical approach. Theoretical Economics 1, 395--410.","journal-title":"Theoretical Economics"},{"volume-title":"Retrieved","year":"2013","key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","unstructured":"Google. 2013 a. Google Maps . Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/maps.google.com\/. Google. 2013a. Google Maps. Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/maps.google.com\/."},{"volume-title":"Retrieved","year":"2013","key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Google. 2013 b. WAZE . Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/www.waze.com\/. Google. 2013b. WAZE. Retrieved September 16, 2014, from http:\/\/www.waze.com\/."},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913)","author":"Hajaj C.","key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","unstructured":"C. Hajaj , N. Hazon , D. Sarne , and A. Elmalech . 2013. Search more, disclose less . In Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913) . C. Hajaj, N. Hazon, D. Sarne, and A. Elmalech. 2013. Search more, disclose less. In Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. A. Horn and C. R. Johnson. 1991. Topics in Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press. R. A. Horn and C. R. Johnson. 1991. Topics in Matrix Analysis. Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511840371"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2007.05.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E. Kamenica and M. Gentzkow. 2010. Bayesian Persuasion. Technical Report. University of Chicago Chicago IL. Under review. E. Kamenica and M. Gentzkow. 2010. Bayesian Persuasion. Technical Report. University of Chicago Chicago IL. Under review.","DOI":"10.3386\/w15540"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X. J. Kuang R. A. Weber and J. Dana. 2007. How effective is advice from interested parties&quest; Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 62 4 591--604. X. J. Kuang R. A. Weber and J. Dana. 2007. How effective is advice from interested parties&quest; Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 62 4 591--604.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2005.03.010"},{"volume-title":"Best to go with what you know&quest","author":"Lee D.","key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","unstructured":"D. Lee . 2006. Best to go with what you know&quest ; Nature 441, 15, 822--823. D. Lee. 2006. Best to go with what you know&quest; Nature 441, 15, 822--823."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2420140302"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","first-page":"2","article-title":"Dynamics of commuting decision behaviour under advanced traveller information systems","volume":"7","author":"Mahmassani H. S.","year":"1999","unstructured":"H. S. Mahmassani and Y.-H. Liu . 1999 . Dynamics of commuting decision behaviour under advanced traveller information systems . Transporation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 7 , 2 -- 3 , 91--107. H. S. Mahmassani and Y.-H. Liu. 1999. Dynamics of commuting decision behaviour under advanced traveller information systems. Transporation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies 7, 2--3, 91--107.","journal-title":"Transporation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2555625"},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913)","author":"Nguyen T.","key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","unstructured":"T. Nguyen , R. Yang , A. Azaria , S. Kraus , and M. Tambe . 2013. Analyzing the effectiveness of adversary modeling in security games . In Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913) . T. Nguyen, R. Yang, A. Azaria, S. Kraus, and M. Tambe. 2013. Analyzing the effectiveness of adversary modeling in security games. In Proceedings of the 27th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201913)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","unstructured":"M. J. Osborne and A. Rubinstein. 1994. A Course in Game Theory. MIT Press Cambridge MA. M. J. Osborne and A. Rubinstein. 1994. A Course in Game Theory. MIT Press Cambridge MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems","volume":"1","author":"Oshrat Y.","unstructured":"Y. Oshrat , R. Lin , and S. Kraus . 2009. Facing the challenge of human-agent negotiations via effective general opponent modeling . In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems , Vol. 1 (AAMAS\u201909). 377--384. Y. Oshrat, R. Lin, and S. Kraus. 2009. Facing the challenge of human-agent negotiations via effective general opponent modeling. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Vol. 1 (AAMAS\u201909). 377--384."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1017\/S1930297500002205","article-title":"Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk","volume":"5","author":"Paolacci G.","year":"2010","unstructured":"G. Paolacci , J. Chandler , and P. G. Ipeirotis . 2010 . Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk . Judgment and Decision Making 5 , 5, 411 -- 419 . G. Paolacci, J. Chandler, and P. G. Ipeirotis. 2010. Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Judgment and Decision Making 5, 5, 411--419.","journal-title":"Judgment and Decision Making"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","unstructured":"N. Peled Y. Gal and S. Kraus. 2011. A study of computational and human strategies in revelation games. In Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems. Springer. N. Peled Y. Gal and S. Kraus. 2011. A study of computational and human strategies in revelation games. In Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems. Springer."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","unstructured":"E. Turkay Pillai. 2009. Two-Sided Uncertainty in Persuasion Games. Working paper. E. Turkay Pillai. 2009. Two-Sided Uncertainty in Persuasion Games. Working paper."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/657922"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems","volume":"1","author":"Rosenfeld A.","unstructured":"A. Rosenfeld and S. Kraus . 2011. Using aspiration adaptation theory to improve learning . In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems , Vol. 1 , 423--430. A. Rosenfeld and S. Kraus. 2011. Using aspiration adaptation theory to improve learning. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Vol. 1, 423--430."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-012-0182-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems","volume":"1","author":"Sarne D.","unstructured":"D. Sarne , A. Elmalech , B. J. Grosz , and M. Geva . 2011. Less is more: Restructuring decisions to improve agent search . In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems , Vol. 1 . 431--438. D. Sarne, A. Elmalech, B. J. Grosz, and M. Geva. 2011. Less is more: Restructuring decisions to improve agent search. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Vol. 1. 431--438."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/obhd.2000.2909"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2558397","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/2558397","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T07:35:00Z","timestamp":1750232100000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2558397"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,29]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,23]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/2558397"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2558397","relation":{},"ISSN":["2157-6904","2157-6912"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"2157-6904"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2157-6912"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,29]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2013-03-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2013-11-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2014-12-29","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}