{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T12:48:53Z","timestamp":1777726133940,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]],"date-time":"2015-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1451520000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent decades have seen a resurgence of interest in electroencephalography (EEG), as neuroscience develops new models of cognition and refines old ones, associating them with detectable indicators of brain activity. This article presents a more direct measure of programmer expertise, derived from noninvasive observation of the brain\u2019s electrical activity. This article provides a foundational approach for investigating the role of expertise in programming language comprehension, showing that this electrical activity in the brain can indicate (1) prior programming experience by class level (current state of progression through an undergraduate computer science program), and (2) self-reported experience levels.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/2829945","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,1,14]],"date-time":"2016-01-14T02:18:38Z","timestamp":1452737918000},"page":"1-29","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":50,"title":["Understanding Programming Expertise"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Igor","family":"Crk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, IL"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Timothy","family":"Kluthe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, IL"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Stefik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","first-page":"483","article-title":"When novices surpass experts: the difficulty of a task may increase with expertise","volume":"10","author":"Adelson B.","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8659.2011.01928.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","first-page":"425","article-title":"Using electroencephalography to measure cognitive load. Edu","volume":"22","author":"Antonenko Pavlo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2007.17"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1992.4.3.281"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.56.11.851"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-7421(08)60452-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2008.01.007"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","volume-title":"Integrative Brain Functions. Neurophysiology and Cognitive Processes","volume":"2","author":"Basar E.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01797193"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"John A. Caldwell and Nancy Jo Wesensten (Eds.)","volume":"5797","author":"Berka Chris","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","volume-title":"Empirical Studies of Programmers: 5th Workshop. Ablex","author":"Bertholf C. F."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Australasian Computing Education -","volume":"78","author":"Bornat Richard","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/S15326985EP3801_7"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/08989290051137585"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90004-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog0502_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0160-2896(01)00096-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wnr.0000198433.29389.54"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-02812-0_55"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7373(05)80143-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fran\u00e7oise D\u00e9tienne and Frank Bott. 2002. Software Design--Cognitive Aspects. Springer London.   Fran\u00e7oise D\u00e9tienne and Frank Bott. 2002. Software Design--Cognitive Aspects. Springer London.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-0111-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","unstructured":"Adrianus de Groot. 1965. Thought and Choice in Chess. Mouton The Hague.  Adrianus de Groot. 1965. Thought and Choice in Chess. Mouton The Hague."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03197595"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.128.3.309"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K. Anders Ericsson Ralf Th. Krampe and Clemens Tesch-romer. 1993. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Rev. (1993) 363--406.  K. Anders Ericsson Ralf Th. Krampe and Clemens Tesch-romer. 1993. The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Rev. (1993) 363--406.","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.100.3.363"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2568225.2568266"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-31401-8_12"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/7.4.374"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02724988843000005"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0277(98)00020-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2006.02.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(03)00095-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1357054.1357187"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2384592.2384596"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120605000909"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-200405000-00003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn915"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2544173.2509528"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/12.8.877"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1990.2.2.124"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(96)00057-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(98)00056-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2003.02517.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresrev.2006.06.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1027\/1618-3169.52.2.99"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2010.01069.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/851042.857036"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2012.01474.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2398857.2384666"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","volume-title":"ICSE\u201994: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Software Engineering. IEEE Computer Society Press","author":"von Mayrhouser Anneliese"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/32.508315"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/266399.266414"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0043158"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","unstructured":"Marvin Minsky. 1974. A framework for representing knowledge. (June 1974). MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA.   Marvin Minsky. 1974. A framework for representing knowledge. (June 1974). MIT-AI Laboratory Memo 306 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2591062.2591098"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(02)00285-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.84.4.429"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICPC.2011.49"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","volume-title":"Empirical Studies of Programmers: Second Workshop, Gary M. Olson, Sylvia Sheppard, Elliot Soloway, and Ben Shneiderman (Eds.). Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.","author":"Pennington Nancy","year":"1987"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(87)90007-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(77)90235-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-8760(89)90041-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/266399.266411"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3992243"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(76)90011-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2007.05278.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","volume-title":"Empirical Studies of Programmers","author":"Rist Robert S."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2005.03.016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1240866.1241057"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.2.127"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10664-013-9286-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2568225.2568252"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","unstructured":"D. P. Simon and H. A. Simon. 2004. Individual differences in solving physics problems. In Children\u2019s Thinking: What Develops? R. S. Siegler (Ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Hillsdale NJ.  D. P. Simon and H. A. Simon. 2004. Individual differences in solving physics problems. In Children\u2019s Thinking: What Develops? R. S. Siegler (Ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc. Hillsdale NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.283.5408.1657"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0926-6410(98)00043-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.1984.5010283"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2534973"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Sensitivity of human EEG alpha band desynchronization to different working memory components and increasing levels of memory load. Neurosci","volume":"353","author":"Stipacek A.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lett."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"John Sweller. 2005. Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press Cambridge U.K. 19--30.  John Sweller. 2005. Implications of cognitive load theory for multimedia learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Cambridge University Press Cambridge U.K. 19--30.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511816819.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"John Sweller Paul Ayres and Slava Kalyuga. 2011. Cognitive Load Theory. Springer New York. http:\/\/books. google.com\/books?id&equals;sSAwbd8qOAAC  John Sweller Paul Ayres and Slava Kalyuga. 2011. Cognitive Load Theory. Springer New York. http:\/\/books. google.com\/books?id&equals;sSAwbd8qOAAC","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8126-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_82_1","unstructured":"W. Paul Vogt. 2007. Quantitative Research Methods for Professionals. Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon. http:\/\/books. google.com\/books?id&equals;NWIUAQAAMAAJ.  W. Paul Vogt. 2007. Quantitative Research Methods for Professionals. Pearson\/Allyn and Bacon. http:\/\/books. google.com\/books?id&equals;NWIUAQAAMAAJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TAU.1967.1161901"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4694(96)96030-7"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2829945","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/2829945","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T18:56:06Z","timestamp":1750272966000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2829945"}},"subtitle":["An Empirical Study of Phasic Brain Wave Changes"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"references-count":84,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,2,20]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/2829945"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2829945","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-0516","1557-7325"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-0516","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7325","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2014-06-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2015-09-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2015-12-31","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}