{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T15:24:20Z","timestamp":1761060260704,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,2]],"date-time":"2017-01-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1483315200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Interact. Intell. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to improve the social capabilities of embodied conversational agents, we propose a computational model to enable agents to automatically select and display appropriate smiling behavior during human--machine interaction. A smile may convey different communicative intentions depending on subtle characteristics of the facial expression and contextual cues. To construct such a model, as a first step, we explore the morphological and dynamic characteristics of different types of smiles (polite, amused, and embarrassed smiles) that an embodied conversational agent may display. The resulting lexicon of smiles is based on a corpus of virtual agents\u2019 smiles directly created by users and analyzed through a machine-learning technique. Moreover, during an interaction, a smiling expression impacts on the observer\u2019s perception of the interpersonal stance of the speaker. As a second step, we propose a probabilistic model to automatically compute the user\u2019s potential perception of the embodied conversational agent\u2019s social stance depending on its smiling behavior and on its physical appearance. This model, based on a corpus of users\u2019 perceptions of smiling and nonsmiling virtual agents, enables a virtual agent to determine the appropriate smiling behavior to adopt given the interpersonal stance it wants to express. An experiment using real human--virtual agent interaction provided some validation of the proposed model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/2925993","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,3]],"date-time":"2017-01-03T13:18:41Z","timestamp":1483449521000},"page":"1-33","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["A User Perception--Based Approach to Create Smiling Embodied Conversational Agents"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Magalie","family":"Ochs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Aix Marseille Universit\u00e9, CNRS, ENSAM, Universit\u00e9 de Toulon, LSIS, Marseille, France"}]},{"given":"Catherine","family":"Pelachaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNRS-LTCI T\u00e9l\u00e9com ParisTech, Multimedia group, Paris, France"}]},{"given":"Gary","family":"Mckeown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Queen\u2019s University of Belfast, School of Psychology, Northern Ireland, UK"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-008-0059-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0148"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1031(03)00012-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2009.08.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"International Workshop on Interacting with ECAs as Virtual Characters, International Conference of Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS\u201910)","author":"Bevacqua Elisabetta","year":"2010","unstructured":"Elisabetta Bevacqua , Sylwia Hyniewska , and Catherine Pelachaud . 2010 a. Positive influence of smile backchannels in ECAs . In International Workshop on Interacting with ECAs as Virtual Characters, International Conference of Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS\u201910) . Elisabetta Bevacqua, Sylwia Hyniewska, and Catherine Pelachaud. 2010a. Positive influence of smile backchannels in ECAs. In International Workshop on Interacting with ECAs as Virtual Characters, International Conference of Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS\u201910)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elisabetta Bevacqua Ken Prepin Radoslaw Niewiadomski Etienne deSevin and Catherine Pelachaud. 2010b. Artificial companions in society: Perspectives on the present and future. Chapter Greta: Towards an Interactive Conversational Virtual Companion 143--156.  Elisabetta Bevacqua Ken Prepin Radoslaw Niewiadomski Etienne deSevin and Catherine Pelachaud. 2010b. Artificial companions in society: Perspectives on the present and future. Chapter Greta: Towards an Interactive Conversational Virtual Companion 143--156.","DOI":"10.1075\/nlp.8.20bev"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Olshen","author":"Breiman Leo","year":"1984","unstructured":"Leo Breiman , Jerome Friedman , Charles J. Stone , and Richard A . Olshen . 1984 . Classification and Regression Trees. Chapman and Hall . Leo Breiman, Jerome Friedman, Charles J. Stone, and Richard A. Olshen. 1984. Classification and Regression Trees. Chapman and Hall."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2016.02.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/332051.332075"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-7051(00)00102-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/ijhc.1999.0325"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00908.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199570386.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511752841"},{"volume-title":"Approaches to the Evolution of Language","author":"MacDonald Dunbar Robin Ian","key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Robin Ian MacDonald Dunbar . 2001. Theory of mind and the evolution of language . In Approaches to the Evolution of Language , J. R. Hurford, M. Studdert-Kennedy, and C. Knight (Eds.). Cambridge University Press , Cambridge, UK , 92--110. Robin Ian MacDonald Dunbar. 2001. Theory of mind and the evolution of language. In Approaches to the Evolution of Language, J. R. Hurford, M. Studdert-Kennedy, and C. Knight (Eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 92--110."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.93.1.30"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00253.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1280.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage","author":"Ekman Paul","year":"2009","unstructured":"Paul Ekman . 2009 . Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage . W. W. Norton , New York, NY . Paul Ekman. 2009. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage. W. W. Norton, New York, NY."},{"volume-title":"Unmasking the Face. A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from Facial Clues","author":"Ekman Paul","key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen . 1975. Unmasking the Face. A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from Facial Clues . Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Englewood Cliffs, NJ . Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen. 1975. Unmasking the Face. A Guide to Recognizing Emotions from Facial Clues. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00987191"},{"volume-title":"The Facial Action Coding System. Weidenfeld and Nicolson","author":"Ekman Paul","key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","unstructured":"Paul Ekman , Wallace Friesen , and Joseph Hager . 2002. The Facial Action Coding System. Weidenfeld and Nicolson , London, UK . Paul Ekman, Wallace Friesen, and Joseph Hager. 2002. The Facial Action Coding System. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, UK."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.1.83"},{"volume-title":"Laughter in Interaction","author":"Glenn Phillip J.","key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","unstructured":"Phillip J. Glenn . 2003. Laughter in Interaction . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge, UK . Phillip J. Glenn. 2003. Laughter in Interaction. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","unstructured":"Karl Grammer and Elisabeth Oberzaucher. 2006. The reconstruction of facial expressions in embodied systems. ZiF: Mitteilungen 2.  Karl Grammer and Elisabeth Oberzaucher. 2006. The reconstruction of facial expressions in embodied systems. ZiF: Mitteilungen 2."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0191-8869(96)00050-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","first-page":"187","article-title":"Who to whom and why--cultural differences and similarities in the function of smiles","volume":"4","author":"Hess Ursula","year":"2002","unstructured":"Ursula Hess , Martin G. Beaupr\u00e9 , Nicole Cheung , and others. 2002 . Who to whom and why--cultural differences and similarities in the function of smiles . An Empirical Reflection on the Smile 4 , 187 . Ursula Hess, Martin G. Beaupr\u00e9, Nicole Cheung, and others. 2002. Who to whom and why--cultural differences and similarities in the function of smiles. An Empirical Reflection on the Smile 4, 187.","journal-title":"An Empirical Reflection on the Smile"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1006623213355"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2420200502"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843606000746"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2012.11"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-24600-5_17"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00111"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.68.3.441"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/147470491201000301"},{"volume-title":"Style as stance: Stance as the explanation for patterns of sociolinguistic variation","author":"Kielsing Scott Fabius","key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","unstructured":"Scott Fabius Kielsing . 2009. Style as stance: Stance as the explanation for patterns of sociolinguistic variation . In A. Jaffe (Ed.), Stance : Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Oxford University Press , Oxford, UK, 171--194. Scott Fabius Kielsing. 2009. Style as stance: Stance as the explanation for patterns of sociolinguistic variation. In A. Jaffe (Ed.), Stance: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 171--194."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"Horgan","author":"Knapp Mark L.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Mark L. Knapp , Judith A. Hall , and Terrence G . Horgan . 2013 . Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Cengage Learning, Boston, MA. Mark L. Knapp, Judith A. Hall, and Terrence G. Horgan. 2013. Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction. Cengage Learning, Boston, MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/11821830_17"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2012.09.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-85483-8_63"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10919-006-0019-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0017844"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167295213002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.1982.9713408"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-011-0124-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028616"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1754073914544475"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2011.20"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032631"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1556\/JEP.2007.1011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-3095(85)90016-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2011.5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74889-2_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603322761289"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCYB.2015.2411432"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA\u201910)","author":"Ochs Magalie","year":"2010","unstructured":"Magalie Ochs , Radoslaw Niewiadmoski , and Catherine Pelachaud . 2010 . How a virtual agent should smile? Morphological and dynamic characteristics of virtual agent\u2019s smiles . In Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA\u201910) . Springer, Berlin, 427--440. Magalie Ochs, Radoslaw Niewiadmoski, and Catherine Pelachaud. 2010. How a virtual agent should smile? Morphological and dynamic characteristics of virtual agent\u2019s smiles. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (IVA\u201910). Springer, Berlin, 427--440."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magalie Ochs Radoslaw Niewiadomski Paul Brunet and Catherine Pelachaud. 2012. Smiling virtual agent in social context. Cognitive Processing Special Issue on \u201cSocial Agents\u201d 13 22 519--532.  Magalie Ochs Radoslaw Niewiadomski Paul Brunet and Catherine Pelachaud. 2012. Smiling virtual agent in social context. Cognitive Processing Special Issue on \u201cSocial Agents\u201d 13 22 519--532.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-011-0424-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1996.82.3c.1111"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(02)00145-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12193-010-0052-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","unstructured":"Iabella Poggi and Roberto Chirico. 1998. The meaning of smile. In Oralit\u00e9 Gestualit\u00e9 Communication Multimodale Interaction. 159--164.  Iabella Poggi and Roberto Chirico. 1998. The meaning of smile. In Oralit\u00e9 Gestualit\u00e9 Communication Multimodale Interaction. 159--164."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/10720296_13"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","volume-title":"TANAGRA: Un logiciel gratuit pour l\u2019enseignement et la recherche. In Extraction et Gestion des Connaissances (EGC\u201905). 697--702.","author":"Rakotomalala Ricco","year":"2005","unstructured":"Ricco Rakotomalala . 2005 . TANAGRA: Un logiciel gratuit pour l\u2019enseignement et la recherche. In Extraction et Gestion des Connaissances (EGC\u201905). 697--702. Ricco Rakotomalala. 2005. TANAGRA: Un logiciel gratuit pour l\u2019enseignement et la recherche. In Extraction et Gestion des Connaissances (EGC\u201905). 697--702."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1082473.1082615"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.2420200307"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2011.940412"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0539018405058216"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","volume-title":"The SEMAINE API: Towards a standards-based framework for building emotion-oriented systems. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction","author":"Schr\u00f6der Marc","year":"1940","unstructured":"Marc Schr\u00f6der . 2010. The SEMAINE API: Towards a standards-based framework for building emotion-oriented systems. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction Vol. 2010 , Article ID 3 1940 6, 21 pages. Marc Schr\u00f6der. 2010. The SEMAINE API: Towards a standards-based framework for building emotion-oriented systems. Advances in Human-Computer Interaction Vol. 2010, Article ID 319406, 21 pages."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2011.34"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/T-AFFC.2011.26"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1432784.1432868"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","unstructured":"Emmanuel Tanguy. 2006. Emotions: The Art of Communication Applied to Virtual Actors. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Computer Science University of Bath UK.  Emmanuel Tanguy. 2006. Emotions: The Art of Communication Applied to Virtual Actors. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Computer Science University of Bath UK."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","first-page":"31","article-title":"Employing virtual lecturers\u2019 facial expressions in virtual educational environments","volume":"7","author":"Theonas G.","year":"2008","unstructured":"G. Theonas , Dave Hobbs , and Dimitrios Rigas . 2008 . Employing virtual lecturers\u2019 facial expressions in virtual educational environments . International Journal of Virtual Reality 7 , 31 -- 44 . G. Theonas, Dave Hobbs, and Dimitrios Rigas. 2008. Employing virtual lecturers\u2019 facial expressions in virtual educational environments. International Journal of Virtual Reality 7, 31--44.","journal-title":"International Journal of Virtual Reality"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1027\/1864-9335\/a000122"},{"volume-title":"The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition","author":"Tomasello Michael","key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","unstructured":"Michael Tomasello . 1999. The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition . Harvard University Press , Cambridge, MA . Michael Tomasello. 1999. The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education: Supporting Learning Through Intelligent and Socially Informed Technology. IOS Press","author":"Wang Ning","year":"2005","unstructured":"Ning Wang , W. Lewis Johnson , Richard E. Mayer , Paola Rizzo , Erin Shaw , and Heather Collins . 2005 . The politeness effect: Pedagogical agents and learning gains . In Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education: Supporting Learning Through Intelligent and Socially Informed Technology. IOS Press , Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 686--693. Ning Wang, W. Lewis Johnson, Richard E. Mayer, Paola Rizzo, Erin Shaw, and Heather Collins. 2005. The politeness effect: Pedagogical agents and learning gains. In Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education: Supporting Learning Through Intelligent and Socially Informed Technology. IOS Press, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 686--693."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/365153.365168"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511525636"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/PASSAT\/SocialCom.2011.203"}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Interactive Intelligent Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2925993","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/2925993","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T19:04:26Z","timestamp":1750273466000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/2925993"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,2]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/2925993"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/2925993","relation":{},"ISSN":["2160-6455","2160-6463"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"2160-6455"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2160-6463"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2015-12-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2016-10-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2017-01-02","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}