{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,29]],"date-time":"2026-05-29T16:55:14Z","timestamp":1780073714821,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,13]],"date-time":"2017-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1499904000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Asian Low-Resour. Lang. Inf. Process."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Accurate sentiment analysis models encode the sentiment of words and their combinations to predict the overall sentiment of a sentence. This task becomes challenging when applied to morphologically rich languages (MRL). In this article, we evaluate the use of deep learning advances, namely the Recursive Neural Tensor Networks (RNTN), for sentiment analysis in Arabic as a case study of MRLs. While Arabic may not be considered the only representative of all MRLs, the challenges faced and proposed solutions in Arabic are common to many other MRLs. We identify, illustrate, and address MRL-related challenges and show how RNTN is affected by the morphological richness and orthographic ambiguity of the Arabic language. To address the challenges with sentiment extraction from text in MRL, we propose to explore different orthographic features as well as different morphological features at multiple levels of abstraction ranging from raw words to roots. A key requirement for RNTN is the availability of a sentiment treebank; a collection of syntactic parse trees annotated for sentiment at all levels of constituency and that currently only exists in English. Therefore, our contribution also includes the creation of the first Arabic Sentiment Treebank (A\n            <jats:sc>r<\/jats:sc>\n            S\n            <jats:sc>en<\/jats:sc>\n            TB) that is morphologically and orthographically enriched. Experimental results show that, compared to the basic RNTN proposed for English, our solution achieves significant improvements up to 8% absolute at the phrase level and 10.8% absolute at the sentence level, measured by average F1 score. It also outperforms well-known classifiers including Support Vector Machines, Recursive Auto Encoders, and Long Short-Term Memory by 7.6%, 3.2%, and 1.6% absolute respectively, all models being trained with similar morphological considerations.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3086576","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,13]],"date-time":"2017-07-13T14:29:57Z","timestamp":1499956197000},"page":"1-21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["A Sentiment Treebank and Morphologically Enriched Recursive Deep Models for Effective Sentiment Analysis in Arabic"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6160-6335","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramy","family":"Baly","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hazem","family":"Hajj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nizar","family":"Habash","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New York University Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Khaled Bashir","family":"Shaban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qatar University, Doha, Qatar"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wassim","family":"El-Hajj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"2015. Internet World Stats: Internet World Users by Language. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.internetworldstats.com\/.  2015. Internet World Stats: Internet World Users by Language. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.internetworldstats.com\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1361684.1361685"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csl.2013.03.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC\u201912)","author":"Abdul-Mageed Muhammad"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC\u201914)","author":"Abdul-Mageed Muhammad"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 49th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies: Short Papers","volume":"2","author":"Abdul-Mageed Muhammad","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2013 8th International Conference for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST\u201913)","author":"Al-Kabi Mohammed N.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the EMNLP 2014 Workshop on Arabic Natural Language Processing (ANLP\u201915)","author":"Al Sallab Ahmad A."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","volume-title":"Wassim El Hajj, and Khaled B. Shaban. forthcoming","author":"Al Sallab Ahmad A.","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC\u201910)","author":"Altantawy Mohamed","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"Atiya","author":"Aly Mohamed A.","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W15-3203"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/W14-3623"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"TwiSE at semeval-2016 task 4: Twitter sentiment classification. arXiv:1606.04351","author":"Balikas Georgios","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W17-1314"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2950050"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001316446002000104"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0026256"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1390156.1390177"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/S16-1173"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","article-title":"Adaptive subgradient methods for online learning and stochastic optimization","author":"Duchi John","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res. 12"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10590-011-9110-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","first-page":"73","article-title":"Sentiment analyzer for arabic comments","volume":"3","author":"Elawady Rasheed M.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Sci. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDMW.2010.95"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W15-3210"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","volume-title":"Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions","author":"Fleiss Joseph L."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, 394--402","author":"Green Spence"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1220175.1220261"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nizar Habash and Fatiha Sadat. 2006. Arabic preprocessing schemes for statistical machine translation. (2006).  Nizar Habash and Fatiha Sadat. 2006. Arabic preprocessing schemes for statistical machine translation. (2006).","DOI":"10.3115\/1614049.1614062"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2200\/S00277ED1V01Y201008HLT010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","unstructured":"Ozan Irsoy and Claire Cardie. 2014. Deep recursive neural networks for compositionality in language. In Adv. Neur. Inf. Process. Syst. 2096--2104.   Ozan Irsoy and Claire Cardie. 2014. Deep recursive neural networks for compositionality in language. In Adv. Neur. Inf. Process. Syst. 2096--2104."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/P14-1062"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2693068.2693087"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGNLL Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning (CoNLL\u201913)","author":"Luong Thang"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","volume-title":"Catalog No.: LDC2010L01","author":"Maamouri Mohamed","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","volume-title":"The stanford corenlp natural language processing toolkit","author":"Manning Christopher D."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","unstructured":"Tomas Mikolov Ilya Sutskever Kai Chen Greg S. Corrado and Jeff Dean. 2013. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 3111--3119.   Tomas Mikolov Ilya Sutskever Kai Chen Greg S. Corrado and Jeff Dean. 2013. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 3111--3119."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2010.01106.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/W16-0429"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/W14-3605"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","volume-title":"Research and Development in Intelligent","author":"Mountassir Asmaa"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Computational Approaches to Subjectivity, Sentiment and Social Media Analysis. 55--64","author":"Mourad Ahmed","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","first-page":"77","article-title":"Ensemble of classification algorithms for subjectivity and sentiment analysis of arabic customers\u2019 reviews","volume":"5","author":"Omar Nazlia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1218955.1218990"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1118693.1118704"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC\u201914)","author":"Pasha Arfath","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP\u201914)","volume":"14","author":"Pennington Jeffrey"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Workshop on Free\/Open-Source Arabic Corpora and Corpora Processing Tools. 16","author":"Refaee Eshrag","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/N15-2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/asi.21598"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/N15-1078"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC\u201916)","author":"Shahrour Anas","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CTS.2012.6261103"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing. Association for Computational Linguistics, 151--161","author":"Socher Richard"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (EMNLP\u201913)","volume":"1631","author":"Socher Richard","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","volume-title":"Manning","author":"Tai Kai Sheng","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D15-1167"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of International Conference of Computational Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies Dialog-2015","volume":"2","author":"Tarasov D. S.","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1073083.1073153"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","unstructured":"UNESCO. 2014. World Arabic Language Day. Retrieved from http:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/articles\/2012\/12\/18\/2558 53.html.  UNESCO. 2014. World Arabic Language Day. Retrieved from http:\/\/english.alarabiya.net\/articles\/2012\/12\/18\/2558 53.html."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","unstructured":"Xiang Zhang Junbo Zhao and Yann LeCun. 2015. Character-level convolutional networks for text classification. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 649--657.   Xiang Zhang Junbo Zhao and Yann LeCun. 2015. Character-level convolutional networks for text classification. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 649--657."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Asian and Low-Resource Language Information Processing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3086576","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3086576","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T03:37:02Z","timestamp":1750217822000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3086576"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,13]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3086576"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3086576","relation":{},"ISSN":["2375-4699","2375-4702"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2375-4699","type":"print"},{"value":"2375-4702","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2017-01-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2017-04-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2017-07-13","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}