{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T02:56:10Z","timestamp":1776394570232,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"CSCW","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,1]],"date-time":"2018-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1541030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IIS-1408345"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIS-1408345"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"NSF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["IIS-1553088"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IIS-1553088"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Misinformation and fact-checking are opposite forces in the news environment: the former creates inaccuracies to mislead people, while the latter provides evidence to rebut the former. These news articles are often posted on social media and attract user engagement in the form of comments. In this paper, we investigate linguistic (especially emotional and topical) signals expressed in user comments in the presence of misinformation and fact-checking. We collect and analyze a dataset of 5,303 social media posts with 2,614,374 user comments from Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, and associate these posts to fact-check articles from Snopes and PolitiFact for veracity rulings (i.e., from true to false). We find that linguistic signals in user comments vary significantly with the veracity of posts, e.g., we observe more misinformation-awareness signals and extensive emoji and swear word usage with falser posts. We further show that these signals can help to detect misinformation. In addition, we find that while there are signals indicating positive effects after fact-checking, there are also signals indicating potential \"backfire\" effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3274351","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,1]],"date-time":"2018-11-01T21:21:27Z","timestamp":1541107287000},"page":"1-23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":98,"title":["Linguistic Signals under Misinformation and Fact-Checking"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"Shan","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA"}]},{"given":"Christo","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1257\/jep.31.2.211"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1220575.1220648"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08913811.2014.993890"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15377857.2014.959691"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2998181.2998294"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Effects of group pressure upon the modification anddistortion of judgments. Groups, leadership, and men","author":"Asch Solomon E","year":"1951","unstructured":"Solomon E Asch and HGuetzkow. 1951. Effects of group pressure upon the modification anddistortion of judgments. Groups, leadership, and men (1951), 222--236."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","first-page":"2200","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources andEvaluation (LREC","volume":"10","author":"Baccianella Stefano","year":"2010","unstructured":"Stefano Baccianella,Andrea Esuli, and Fabrizio Sebastiani. 2010. Sentiwordnet 3.0: an enhanced lexical resource forsentiment analysis and opinion mining. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources andEvaluation (LREC 2010), Vol. 10. bibinfopages2200--2204."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1625275.1625705"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","first-page":"333","volume-title":"Second Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (* SEM),Volume 2: Proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on SemanticEvaluation (SemEval","volume":"2","author":"Becker Lee","year":"2013","unstructured":"Lee Becker, GeorgeErhart, David Skiba, and ValentineMatula. 2013. Avaya: Sentiment analysis on twitter withself-training and polarity lexicon expansion. In Second Joint Conference on Lexical and Computational Semantics (* SEM),Volume 2: Proceedings of the Seventh International Workshop on SemanticEvaluation (SemEval 2013), Vol. 2. bibinfopages333--340."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","unstructured":"Nina Berman. 2017. The victims of fake news. (2017). https:\/\/www.cjr.org\/special_report\/fake-news-pizzagate-seth-rich-newtown-sandy-hook.php"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","unstructured":"Edward L Bernays. 1928. Propaganda .Ig publishing."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3134659"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","unstructured":"Sorrel Brown. 2010. Likert scale examples for surveys. (2010). https:\/\/www.extension.iastate.edu\/documents\/anr\/likertscaleexamplesforsurveys.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Craig J. Calhoun. 1994. Social Theory and the Politics ofIdentity ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3134666"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2998181.2998213"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0128193"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Facebook tries fighting fake news with publisher infobutton on links. (10","author":"Constine Josh","year":"2017","unstructured":"Josh Constine. 2017. Facebook tries fighting fake news with publisher infobutton on links. (10 2017). https:\/\/techcrunch.com\/2017\/10\/05\/facebook-article-information-button\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","first-page":"211","volume-title":"truthiness, and alternative facts:Information behavior and critical information consumption for a new age","author":"Cooke Nicole A","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nicole A Cooke. 2017. Posttruth, truthiness, and alternative facts:Information behavior and critical information consumption for a new age. The Library Quarterly , Vol. 87, 3 (2017), bibinfopages211--221."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","volume-title":"andWalter Quattrociocchi","author":"Vicario Michela Del","year":"2015","unstructured":"Michela Del Vicario,Alessandro Bessi, Fabiana Zollo,Fabio Petroni, Antonio Scala,Guido Caldarelli, H Eugene Stanley, andWalter Quattrociocchi. 2015. Echo chambers in the age of misinformation. arXiv preprint arXiv:1509.00189 (2015)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1419828112"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3134677"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","first-page":"417","volume-title":"Proceedings of the FifthInternational Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2006)","author":"Esuli Andrea","year":"2006","unstructured":"Andrea Esuli andFabrizio Sebastiani. 2006. SentiWordNet: a publicly available lexical resourcefor opinion mining. In Proceedings of the FifthInternational Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2006) .bibinfopages417--422."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","volume-title":"Trump said Obama's grandmother caught on tape sayingshe witnessed his birth in Kenya. (7","author":"Farley Robert","year":"2011","unstructured":"Robert Farley. 2011. Trump said Obama's grandmother caught on tape sayingshe witnessed his birth in Kenya. (7 2011). http:\/\/www.politifact.com\/truth-o-meter\/statements\/2011\/apr\/07\/donald-trump\/donald-trump-says-president-obamas-grandmother-cau\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2858036.2858535"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methodsin Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'17)","author":"Felbo Bjarke","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bjarke Felbo, AlanMislove, Anders S\u00f8gaard, Iyad Rahwan,and Sune Lehmann. 2017. Using millions of emoji occurrences to pretrainany-domain models for detecting emotion, sentiment and sarcasm. In Proceedings of the Conference on Empirical Methodsin Natural Language Processing (EMNLP'17). Copenhagen,Denmark."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2390665.2390708"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2818717"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","unstructured":"Seth Fiegerman. 2017. Facebook Google Twitter to fight fake news with'trust indicators'. (2017). http:\/\/money.cnn.com\/2017\/11\/16\/technology\/tech-trust-indicators\/index.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","first-page":"127","volume-title":"Political Communication","volume":"32","author":"Fridkin Kim","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kim Fridkin, Patrick JKenney, and Amanda Wintersieck. 2015. Liar, liar, pants on fire: How fact-checkinginfluences citizens? reactions to negative advertising. Political Communication , Vol. 32, 1 (2015), bibinfopages127--151."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"\u201cfake news\u201d. (12","author":"Friedman Uri","year":"2017","unstructured":"Uri Friedman. 2017. The real-world consequences of \u201cfake news\u201d. (12 2017). https:\/\/www.theatlantic.com\/international\/archive\/2017\/12\/trump-world-fake-news\/548888\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12038"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","first-page":"623","volume-title":"Media bias in the marketplace: Theory. Handbook of media economics","author":"Gentzkow Matthew","unstructured":"Matthew Gentzkow, Jesse MShapiro, and Daniel F Stone. 2015. Media bias in the marketplace: Theory. Handbook of media economics . Vol. 1. Elsevier,bibinfopages623--645."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3022198.3022663"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","unstructured":"Google. 2018. Google fact checks feature. (2018). https:\/\/developers.google.com\/search\/docs\/data-types\/factcheck"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence fromthe consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign","author":"Guess Andrew","year":"2018","unstructured":"Andrew Guess, BrendanNyhan, and Jason Reifler. 2018. Selective Exposure to Misinformation: Evidence fromthe consumption of fake news during the 2016 US presidential campaign. European Research Council (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1137\/1.9781611972825.14"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2053168017716547"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aniko Hannak DrewMargolin Brian Keegan and IngmarWeber. 2014. Get Back! You Don't Know Me Like That: The SocialMediation of Fact Checking Interventions in Twitter Conversations.. In ICWSM .","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v8i1.14555"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","volume-title":"andCong Yu","author":"Hassan Naeemul","year":"2015","unstructured":"Naeemul Hassan, BillAdair, James T Hamilton, Chengkai Li,Mark Tremayne, Jun Yang, andCong Yu. 2015. The quest to automate fact-checking. world (2015)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2675133.2675202"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","volume-title":"https:\/\/www.factcheck.org","author":"Jackson Brooks","year":"2018","unstructured":"Brooks Jackson. 2018. FactCheck. (2018). https:\/\/www.factcheck.org"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3185593"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICDM.2014.91"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Zhiwei Jin Juan Cao Yongdong Zhang and Jiebo Luo. 2016. News Verification by Exploiting Conflicting SocialViewpoints in Microblogs.. In AAAI .bibinfopages2972--2978.","DOI":"10.5555\/3016100.3016318"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","volume-title":"Speech and language processing","author":"Jurafsky Dan","unstructured":"Dan Jurafsky and James HMartin. 2014. Speech and language processing . Vol. 3. Pearson London:."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","first-page":"66","volume-title":"Emojis: Insights, affordances, and possibilitiesfor psychological science. Trends in cognitive sciences","author":"Kaye Linda K","year":"2017","unstructured":"Linda K Kaye, Stephanie AMalone, and Helen J Wall. 2017. Emojis: Insights, affordances, and possibilitiesfor psychological science. Trends in cognitive sciences , Vol. 21, 2 (2017), bibinfopages66--68."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","volume-title":"Trusting News Project Report","author":"Kearney Michael W.","year":"2017","unstructured":"Michael W. Kearney. 2017. Trusting News Project Report. Reynolds Journalism Institute (7 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2531602.2531677"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2872427.2883085"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","volume-title":"Sociological Forum","author":"Laslett Barbara","unstructured":"Barbara Laslett. 1990. Unfeeling knowledge: Emotion and objectivity in thehistory of sociology. In Sociological Forum , Vol. 5. Springer, 413--433."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","volume-title":"andCarolina Mattsson","author":"Lazer David","year":"2017","unstructured":"David Lazer, MatthewBaum, Nir Grinberg, Lisa Friedland,Kenneth Joseph, Will Hobbs, andCarolina Mattsson. 2017. Combating fake news: An agenda for research andaction. Harvard Kennedy School, Shorenstein Center onMedia, Politics and Public Policy , Vol. 2 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","volume-title":"Science","volume":"359","author":"Lazer David MJ","year":"2018","unstructured":"David MJ Lazer, Matthew ABaum, Yochai Benkler, Adam J Berinsky,Kelly M Greenhill, Filippo Menczer,Miriam J Metzger, Brendan Nyhan,Gordon Pennycook, David Rothschild,et almbox. 2018. The science of fake news. Science , Vol. 359, 6380 (2018), 1094--1096."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100612451018"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","first-page":"146","volume-title":"Proceedings ofthe Eighth International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing(Volume 2: Short Papers)","volume":"2","author":"Li Minglei","year":"2017","unstructured":"Minglei Li, Qin Lu, andYunfei Long. 2017. Are Manually Prepared Affective Lexicons ReallyUseful for Sentiment Analysis. In Proceedings ofthe Eighth International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing(Volume 2: Short Papers), Vol. 2. bibinfopages146--150."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2531602.2531711"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2556288.2557240"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2661829.2662005"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1118108.1118117"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2971648.2971724"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","unstructured":"Cristian Lumezanu NickFeamster and Hans Klein. 2012. # bias: Measuring the tweeting behavior ofpropagandists. In Sixth International AAAIConference on Weblogs and Social Media ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2002472.2002491"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","article-title":"Visualizing data using t-SNE","volume":"9","author":"van der Maaten Laurens","year":"2008","unstructured":"Laurens van der Maaten andGeoffrey Hinton. 2008. Visualizing data using t-SNE. Journal of machine learning research , Vol. 9, 11 (2008), bibinfopages2579--2605.","journal-title":"Journal of machine learning research"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1871985.1872002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","volume-title":"The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in DemocraticPolitics. Perspectives on Politics","author":"Marcus George E.","year":"2002","unstructured":"George E. Marcus. 2002. The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in DemocraticPolitics. Perspectives on Politics (2002)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","volume-title":"Political Fact-Checking on Twitter: When DoCorrections Have an Effect? Political Communication","author":"Margolin Drew B","year":"2017","unstructured":"Drew B Margolin, AnikoHannak, and Ingmar Weber. 2017. Political Fact-Checking on Twitter: When DoCorrections Have an Effect? Political Communication (2017), 1--24."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","volume-title":"Barack Obama Birth Certificate: Is Barack Obama'sbirth certificate a forgery? (8","author":"Mikkelson David","year":"2011","unstructured":"David Mikkelson. 2011. Barack Obama Birth Certificate: Is Barack Obama'sbirth certificate a forgery? (8 2011). https:\/\/www.snopes.com\/fact-check\/birth-certificate\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","volume-title":"https:\/\/www.snopes.com","author":"Mikkelson David","year":"2018","unstructured":"David Mikkelson. 2018. Snopes. (2018). https:\/\/www.snopes.com"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","volume-title":"Efficient estimation of word representations invector space. arXiv preprint arXiv:1301.3781","author":"Mikolov Tomas","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tomas Mikolov, Kai Chen,Greg Corrado, and Jeffrey Dean. 2013. Efficient estimation of word representations invector space. arXiv preprint arXiv:1301.3781 (2013)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","volume-title":"andKaterina Eva Matsa","author":"Mitchell Amy","year":"2014","unstructured":"Amy Mitchell, JeffreyGottfried, Jocelyn Kiley, andKaterina Eva Matsa. 2014. Political polarization & media habits. Pew Research Center , Vol. 21 (2014)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","volume-title":"CREDBANK: A Large-Scale Social Media Corpus WithAssociated Credibility Annotations.. In ICWSM .bibinfopages258--267.","author":"Mitra Tanushree","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tanushree Mitra and EricGilbert. 2015. CREDBANK: A Large-Scale Social Media Corpus WithAssociated Credibility Annotations.. In ICWSM .bibinfopages258--267."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2998181.2998351"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/coin.12024"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/1860631.1860635"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","first-page":"436","volume-title":"Computational Intelligence","volume":"29","author":"Mohammad Saif M","year":"2013","unstructured":"Saif M Mohammad andPeter D Turney. 2013. Crowdsourcing a word--emotion association lexicon. Computational Intelligence , Vol. 29, 3 (2013), bibinfopages436--465."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3078714.3078723"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","volume-title":"\u201cFact-Checkers\u201d!","author":"Liberal Don't Believe","year":"2018","unstructured":"NewsBusters. 2018. Don't Believe the Liberal \u201cFact-Checkers\u201d! (2018). https:\/\/www.newsbusters.org\/fact-checkers"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Andrew Y Ng Michael IJordan and Yair Weiss. 2002. On spectral clustering: Analysis and an algorithm. Advances in neural information processingsystems. 849--856.","DOI":"10.5555\/2980539.2980649"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","first-page":"175","volume-title":"Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in manyguises. Review of general psychology","author":"Nickerson Raymond S","year":"1998","unstructured":"Raymond S Nickerson. 1998. Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in manyguises. Review of general psychology , Vol. 2, 2 (1998), bibinfopages175."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11109-010-9112-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2014.11.017"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MLR.0b013e318279486b"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2002472.2002512"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1561\/1500000011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/1118693.1118704"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2957276.2957297"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_88_1","volume-title":"Linguistic inquiry and word count: LIWC","author":"Pennebaker James W","year":"2001","unstructured":"James W Pennebaker,Martha E Francis, and Roger J Booth. 2001. Linguistic inquiry and word count: LIWC 2001. Mahway: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates , Vol. 71 (2001)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3115\/v1\/D14-1162"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_90_1","volume-title":"\u201cdisputed","author":"Pennycook Gordon","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gordon Pennycook andDavid G Rand. 2017. Assessing the effect of \u201cdisputed\u201d warnings andsource salience on perceptions of fake news accuracy. (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_91_1","volume-title":"Emotions: A general psychoevolutionary theory. Approches to emotion","author":"Plutchik Robert","year":"1984","unstructured":"Robert Plutchik. 1984. Emotions: A general psychoevolutionary theory. Approches to emotion (1984), 197--219."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_92_1","volume-title":"Twitter deleted 200,000 Russian troll tweets. (2","author":"Popken Ben","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ben Popken. 2018. Twitter deleted 200,000 Russian troll tweets. (2 2018). https:\/\/www.nbcnews.com\/tech\/social-media\/now-available-more-200-000-deleted-russian-troll-tweets-n844731"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_93_1","volume-title":"A Survey Experiment Correcting Fake News. Journal of Experimental Political Science","author":"Porter Ethan","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ethan Porter, Thomas JWood, and David Kirby. 2018. Sex Trafficking, Russian Infiltration, BirthCertificates, and Pedophilia: A Survey Experiment Correcting Fake News. Journal of Experimental Political Science (2018), 1--6."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_94_1","volume-title":"A Stylometric Inquiry into Hyperpartisan and FakeNews. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.05638","author":"Potthast Martin","year":"2017","unstructured":"Martin Potthast, JohannesKiesel, Kevin Reinartz, JanekBevendorff, and Benno Stein. 2017. A Stylometric Inquiry into Hyperpartisan and FakeNews. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.05638 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P17-1068"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2145432.2145602"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2012.08.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D17-1317"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_99_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the LREC 2010 Workshopon New Challenges for NLP Frameworks. 45--50","author":"Radim","unstructured":"Radim v Rehr uv rek andPetr Sojka. 2010. Software Framework for Topic Modelling with LargeCorpora. In Proceedings of the LREC 2010 Workshopon New Challenges for NLP Frameworks. 45--50."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_100_1","volume-title":"Conservative project seeks to fact-check thefact-checkers accused of liberal bias. (3","author":"Richardson Valerie","year":"2018","unstructured":"Valerie Richardson. 2018. Conservative project seeks to fact-check thefact-checkers accused of liberal bias. (3 2018). https:\/\/www.washingtontimes.com\/news\/2018\/mar\/27\/conservative-project-seeks-fact-check-fact-checker\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X17704238"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3274417"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.68.3.404"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_104_1","volume-title":"The spread of fake news by social bots. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.07592","author":"Shao Chengcheng","year":"2017","unstructured":"Chengcheng Shao,Giovanni Luca Ciampaglia, Onur Varol,Alessandro Flammini, and FilippoMenczer. 2017. The spread of fake news by social bots. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.07592 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_105_1","volume-title":"Running The Data On PolitiFact Shows Bias AgainstConservatives. (12","author":"Shapiro Matt","year":"2016","unstructured":"Matt Shapiro. 2016. Running The Data On PolitiFact Shows Bias AgainstConservatives. (12 2016). http:\/\/thefederalist.com\/2016\/12\/16\/running-data-politifact-shows-bias-conservatives\/"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_106_1","unstructured":"Aaron Sharockman. 2018. Politifact. (2018). http:\/\/www.politifact.com"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_107_1","volume-title":"Facebook takes down over 200 accounts and","author":"Sheth Sonam","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sonam Sheth. 2018. Facebook takes down over 200 accounts and pages runby the IRA, a notorious Russian troll farm. (4 2018). http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/facebook-removes-accounts-pages-tied-to-russia-internet-research-agency-2018--4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2872518.2889354"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3137597.3137600"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_110_1","unstructured":"Philip J Stone Dexter CDunphy and Marshall S Smith. 1966. The general inquirer: A computer approach tocontent analysis. (1966)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_111_1","unstructured":"Ray Suarez and KerryFlynn. 2017. Facebook Twitter issue policy changes to manage fakenews and hate speech. (2017). https:\/\/www.npr.org\/2017\/12\/24\/573333371\/facebook-twitter-issue-policy-changes-to-manage-fake-news-and-hate-speech"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_112_1","volume-title":"StefanoMoret, and Luca de Alfaro.","author":"Tacchini Eugenio","year":"2017","unstructured":"Eugenio Tacchini, GabrieleBallarin, Marco L Della Vedova, StefanoMoret, and Luca de Alfaro. 2017. Some like it hoax: Automated fake news detection insocial networks. arXiv preprint arXiv:1704.07506 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_113_1","volume-title":"The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Psychology of intergroup relations","author":"Tafjel Henri","year":"1986","unstructured":"Henri Tafjel and John CTurner. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. Psychology of intergroup relations (1986), 7--24."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0261927X09351676"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3184558.3188722"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_116_1","volume-title":"Mining multi-label data. Data mining and knowledge discoveryhandbook","author":"Tsoumakas Grigorios","unstructured":"Grigorios Tsoumakas,Ioannis Katakis, and Ioannis Vlahavas. 2009. Mining multi-label data. Data mining and knowledge discoveryhandbook. Springer, 667--685."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_117_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3184558.3188728"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P17-2102"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_119_1","volume-title":"Science","volume":"359","author":"Vosoughi Soroush","year":"2018","unstructured":"Soroush Vosoughi, DebRoy, and Sinan Aral. 2018. The spread of true and false news online. Science , Vol. 359, 6380 (2018), 1146--1151."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/P17-2067"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3184558.3188723"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_122_1","volume-title":"andT Brown","author":"Ward Andrew","year":"1997","unstructured":"Andrew Ward, L Ross,E Reed, E Turiel, andT Brown. 1997. Naive realism in everyday life: Implications forsocial conflict and misunderstanding. Values and knowledge (1997), 103--135."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_123_1","volume-title":"Fake news. It's complicated. First Draft News","author":"Wardle Claire","year":"2017","unstructured":"Claire Wardle. 2017. Fake news. It's complicated. First Draft News (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12164"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_125_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"The elusive backfire effect: mass attitudes?steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior","author":"Wood Thomas","year":"2016","unstructured":"Thomas Wood and EthanPorter. 2016. The elusive backfire effect: mass attitudes?steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior (2016), bibinfopages1--29."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_126_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14778\/2732286.2732295"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_127_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3051457.3054014"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3274351","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3274351","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3274351","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T00:44:34Z","timestamp":1750207474000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3274351"}},"subtitle":["Evidence from User Comments on Social Media"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"CSCW","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3274351"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3274351","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-0142"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2573-0142","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-11-01","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}