{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T04:31:53Z","timestamp":1750221113720,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,18]],"date-time":"2019-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1552867200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Space Agency via the SEXTANT and COMPASS projects of the ETP-MREP research programme","award":["ESTEC refs. 4000103357\/11\/NL\/EK and 4000111213\/14\/NL\/PA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ESTEC refs. 4000103357\/11\/NL\/EK and 4000111213\/14\/NL\/PA"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Embed. Comput. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Increased mobile autonomy is a vital requisite for future planetary exploration rovers. Stereo vision is a key enabling technology in this regard, as it can passively reconstruct in three dimensions the surroundings of a rover and facilitate the selection of science targets and the planning of safe routes. Nonetheless, accurate dense stereo algorithms are computationally demanding. When executed on the low-performance, radiation-hardened CPUs typically installed on rovers, slow stereo processing severely limits the driving speed and hence the science that can be conducted\n            <jats:italic>in situ<\/jats:italic>\n            . Aiming to decrease execution time while increasing the accuracy of stereo vision embedded in future rovers, this article proposes HW\/SW co-design and acceleration on resource-constrained, space-grade FPGAs. In a top-down approach, we develop a stereo algorithm based on the space sweep paradigm, design its parallel HW architecture, implement it with VHDL, and demonstrate feasible solutions even on small-sized devices with our multi-FPGA partitioning methodology. To meet all cost, accuracy, and speed requirements set by the European Space Agency for this system, we customize our HW\/SW co-processor by design space exploration and testing on a Mars-like dataset. Implemented on Xilinx Virtex technology, or European NG-MEDIUM devices, the FPGA kernel processes a 1,120 \u00d7 1,120 stereo pair in 1.7s\u22123.1s, utilizing only 5.4\u22129.3 LUT6 and 200\u2212312 RAMB18. The proposed system exhibits up to 32\u00d7 speedup over desktop CPUs, or 2,810\u00d7 over space-grade LEON3, and achieves a mean reconstruction error less than 2cm up to 4m depth. Excluding errors exceeding 2cm (which are less than 4% of the total), the mean error is under 8mm.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3312743","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,18]],"date-time":"2019-03-18T12:09:30Z","timestamp":1552910970000},"page":"1-27","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Single- and Multi-FPGA Acceleration of Dense Stereo Vision for Planetary Rovers"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1664-8648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Lentaris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Maragos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Soudris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xenophon","family":"Zabulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology--Hellas (FORTH), Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manolis","family":"Lourakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology--Hellas (FORTH), Heraklion, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cviu.2010.07.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2008.479"},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Embedded Computer Systems: Architectures, Modeling 8 Simulation. 93--101","author":"Christian","key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","unstructured":"Christian Banz et al. 2010. 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