{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T00:10:04Z","timestamp":1750205404408,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":12,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1998,4,1]],"date-time":"1998-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":891388800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["XRDS"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Robotic soccer is a challenging research domain involving multiple agents that need to collaborate in an adversarial environment to achieve specific objectives. This article describes CMUnited, the team of small robotic agents that we developed to enter the RoboCup-97 competition. We designed and built the robotic agents, devised the appropriate vision algorithm, and developed and implemented algorithms for strategic collaboration between the robots in an uncertain and dynamic environment. The robots can organize themselves in formations, hold specific roles, and pursue their goals. In game situations, they have demonstrated their collaborative behaviors on multiple occasions. The robots can also switch roles to maximize the overall performance of the team. We present an overview of the vision processing algorithm which successfully tracks multiple moving objects and predicts trajectories. The paper then focuses on the agents' behaviors ranging from low-level individual behaviors to coordinated, strategic team behaviors. CMUnited won the RoboCup-97 small-robot competition at IJCAI-97 in Nagoya, Japan.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/332084.332089","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,1,8]],"date-time":"2009-01-08T13:15:38Z","timestamp":1231420538000},"page":"11-17","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["CMUnited"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Manuela","family":"Veloso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pitts burgh, PA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Stone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pitts burgh, PA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kwun","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pitts burgh, PA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sorin","family":"Achim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carnegie-Mellon Univ., Pitts burgh, PA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1998,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IROS-96 Workshop on RoboCup","author":"Stone Peter","year":"1996","unstructured":"1 Achim, Sorin, Peter Stone , and Manuela Veloso . Building a dedicated robotic soccer system . In Proceedings of the IROS-96 Workshop on RoboCup , November 1996 . 1 Achim, Sorin, Peter Stone, and Manuela Veloso. Building a dedicated robotic soccer system. In Proceedings of the IROS-96 Workshop on RoboCup, November 1996."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00117447"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","volume-title":"Vehicles - experiments in synthetic psychology","author":"V.","year":"1984","unstructured":"3 Braitenburg, V. Vehicles - experiments in synthetic psychology . MIT Press , 1984 . 3 Braitenburg, V. Vehicles - experiments in synthetic psychology. MIT Press, 1984."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Working Note of the AAAI 1997 Fall Symposium. AAAI, MIT Press","author":"Manuela Veloso Kwun","year":"1997","unstructured":"4 Han, Kwun and Manuela Veloso . Physical model based multi-objects tracking and prediction in robosoccer . In Working Note of the AAAI 1997 Fall Symposium. AAAI, MIT Press , 1997 . 4 Han, Kwun and Manuela Veloso. Physical model based multi-objects tracking and prediction in robosoccer. In Working Note of the AAAI 1997 Fall Symposium. AAAI, MIT Press, 1997."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","first-page":"73","article-title":"Robocup: A challenge problem for AI","volume":"18","author":"Kuniyoshi H., Y.","year":"1997","unstructured":"5 Kitano, H., Y. Kuniyoshi , I. Noda , M. Asada , H. Matsubara , and E. Osawa . Robocup: A challenge problem for AI . AI Magazine , 18 ( 1 ): 73 -- 85 , Spring 1997 . 5 Kitano, H., Y. Kuniyoshi, I. Noda, M. Asada, H. Matsubara, and E. Osawa. Robocup: A challenge problem for AI. AI Magazine, 18(1):73--85, Spring 1997.","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","first-page":"29","volume-title":"Proceedings of AI symposium '95","author":"Soccer","year":"1995","unstructured":"6 Noda, Itsuki. Soccer server : a simulator of robocup . In Proceedings of AI symposium '95 , pp. 29 - 34 . Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence , December 1995 . 6 Noda, Itsuki. Soccer server : a simulator of robocup. In Proceedings of AI symposium '95, pp. 29-34. Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence, December 1995."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Real-time intelligent behaviour in dynamic environments: Soccer-playing robots. Master's thesis","author":"Michael","year":"1993","unstructured":"7 Sahota, Michael K. Real-time intelligent behaviour in dynamic environments: Soccer-playing robots. Master's thesis , University of British Columbia , August 1993 . 7 Sahota, Michael K. Real-time intelligent behaviour in dynamic environments: Soccer-playing robots. Master's thesis, University of British Columbia, August 1993."},{"doi-asserted-by":"publisher","key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSMC.1995.538361"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","first-page":"65","article-title":"Dynamic object capture using fast vision tracking","volume":"18","author":"Bailey Bill","year":"1997","unstructured":"9 Sargent, Randy, Bill Bailey , Carl Witty , and Anne Wright . Dynamic object capture using fast vision tracking . AI Magazine , 18 ( 1 ): 65 -- 72 , Spring 1997 . 9 Sargent, Randy, Bill Bailey, Carl Witty, and Anne Wright. Dynamic object capture using fast vision tracking. AI Magazine, 18(1):65--72, Spring 1997.","journal-title":"AI Magazine"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","first-page":"896","volume-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 8","author":"Stone","year":"1996","unstructured":"10 Stone , Peter and Manuela Veloso. Beating a defender in robotic soccer: Memory-based learning of a continuous function . In David S. Touretzky, Michael C. Mozer, and Michael E. Hasselmo, editors, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 8 , pp. 896 - 902 , Cambridge, MA , MIT Press . 1996 . 10 Stone, Peter and Manuela Veloso. Beating a defender in robotic soccer: Memory-based learning of a continuous function. In David S. Touretzky, Michael C. Mozer, and Michael E. Hasselmo, editors, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 8, pp. 896-902, Cambridge, MA, MIT Press. 1996."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","article-title":"A layered approach to learning client behaviors in the robocup soccer server. To appear","author":"Manuela Veloso Peter","year":"1998","unstructured":"11 Stone, Peter and Manuela Veloso . A layered approach to learning client behaviors in the robocup soccer server. To appear in Applied AI Journal , 1998 . 11 Stone, Peter and Manuela Veloso. A layered approach to learning client behaviors in the robocup soccer server. To appear in Applied AI Journal, 1998.","journal-title":"Applied AI Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Micro-Robot World Cup Soccer Tournament","author":"Veloso Manuela","year":"1996","unstructured":"12 Stone, Peter, Manuela Veloso , and Sorin Achim . Collaboration and learning in robotic soccer . In Proceedings of the Micro-Robot World Cup Soccer Tournament , Taejon, Korea , November 1996 . IEEE Robotics and Automation Society. 12 Stone, Peter, Manuela Veloso, and Sorin Achim. Collaboration and learning in robotic soccer. In Proceedings of the Micro-Robot World Cup Soccer Tournament, Taejon, Korea, November 1996. IEEE Robotics and Automation Society."}],"container-title":["XRDS: Crossroads, The ACM Magazine for Students"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/332084.332089","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/332084.332089","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T23:53:23Z","timestamp":1750204403000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/332084.332089"}},"subtitle":["a team of robotics soccer agents collaborating in an adversarial environment"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1998,4]]},"references-count":12,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/332084.332089"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/332084.332089","relation":{},"ISSN":["1528-4972","1528-4980"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1528-4972"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1528-4980"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1998,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"1998-04-01","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}