{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T04:42:06Z","timestamp":1773895326709,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]],"date-time":"2019-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1564963200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["AI Matters"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing adoption of machine learning to inform decisions in employment, pricing, and criminal justice has raised concerns that algorithms may perpetuate historical and societal discrimination. Academics have responded by introducing numerous definitions of \"fairness\" with corresponding mathematical formalisations, proposed as one-size-fits-all, universal conditions. This paper will explore three of the definitions and demonstrate their embedded ethical values and contextual limitations, using credit risk evaluation as an example use case. I will propose a new approach - context-conscious fairness - that takes into account two main trade-offs: between aggregate benefit and inequity and between accuracy and interpretability. Fairness is not a notion with absolute and binary measurement; the target outcomes and their trade-offs must be specified with respect to the relevant domain context.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3340470.3340477","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,6]],"date-time":"2019-08-06T12:20:55Z","timestamp":1565094055000},"page":"23-29","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Context-conscious fairness in using machine learning to make decisions"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Michelle Seng Ah","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Oxford"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","unstructured":"Baum J. S. J. J. D. & Stute D. (2015). Supreme court affirms fha disparate impact claims.  Baum J. S. J. J. D. & Stute D. (2015). Supreme court affirms fha disparate impact claims."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bertrand M. & Mullainathan S. (2003 July). Are emily and greg more employable than lakisha and jamal? a field experiment on labor market discrimination (Working Paper No. 9873). National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w9873  Bertrand M. & Mullainathan S. (2003 July). Are emily and greg more employable than lakisha and jamal? a field experiment on labor market discrimination (Working Paper No. 9873). National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w9873","DOI":"10.3386\/w9873"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1351847X.2015.1019641"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","unstructured":"Dwork C. Hardt M. Pitassi T. Reingold O. & Zemel R. S. (2011). Fairness through awareness. CoRR abs\/1104.3913. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1104.3913  Dwork C. Hardt M. Pitassi T. Reingold O. & Zemel R. S. (2011). Fairness through awareness. CoRR abs\/1104.3913. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1104.3913"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","first-page":"185","article-title":"What is equality? part 1: Equality of welfare","volume":"10","author":"Dworkin R.","year":"1981","journal-title":"Philosophy and Public Affairs"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"ech. Rep.)","author":"European Commission AI HLEG.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuster A. Goldsmith-Pinkham P. Ramadorai T. & Walther A. (2017 01). Predictably unequal? the effects of machine learning on credit markets. SSRN Electronic Journal.  Fuster A. Goldsmith-Pinkham P. Ramadorai T. & Walther A. (2017 01). Predictably unequal? the effects of machine learning on credit markets. SSRN Electronic Journal.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3072038"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","unstructured":"Gajane P. (2017). On formalizing fairness in prediction with machine learning. CoRR abs\/1710.03184. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1710.03184  Gajane P. (2017). On formalizing fairness in prediction with machine learning. CoRR abs\/1710.03184. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1710.03184"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","volume-title":"ech. Rep.)","author":"Grosz R. A. E. H. A. M. T. M. D. M. Y. S.","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","unstructured":"Hacker P. & Wiedemann E. (2017). A continuous framework for fairness. CoRR abs\/1712.07924. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1712.07924  Hacker P. & Wiedemann E. (2017). A continuous framework for fairness. CoRR abs\/1712.07924. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1712.07924"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"ech. Rep.). U.S. Executive Office of the President","author":"Holden J.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","unstructured":"IEEE Global Initiative. (2018). Ethically aligned design: A vision for prioritizing human well-being with autonomous and intelligent systems. Retrieved from https:\/\/standards.ieee.org\/content\/dam\/ieee-standards\/standards\/web\/documents\/other\/ead_v2.pdf  IEEE Global Initiative. (2018). Ethically aligned design: A vision for prioritizing human well-being with autonomous and intelligent systems. Retrieved from https:\/\/standards.ieee.org\/content\/dam\/ieee-standards\/standards\/web\/documents\/other\/ead_v2.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","unstructured":"Kendig D. (1973). Discrimination against women in home mortgage financing. Yale Review of Law and Social Action 3(2).  Kendig D. (1973). Discrimination against women in home mortgage financing. Yale Review of Law and Social Action 3 (2)."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","unstructured":"Koren J. R. (2016 Jul). What does that web search say about your credit? Retrieved from https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/business\/la-fi-zestfinance-baidu-20160715-snap-story.html  Koren J. R. (2016 Jul). What does that web search say about your credit? Retrieved from https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/business\/la-fi-zestfinance-baidu-20160715-snap-story.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Kusner M. J. Loftus J. R. Russell C. & Silva R. (2017 March). Counterfactual Fairness. arXiv e-prints arXiv:1703.06856.  Kusner M. J. Loftus J. R. Russell C. & Silva R. (2017 March). Counterfactual Fairness. arXiv e-prints arXiv:1703.06856."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2025310"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","unstructured":"Lowenthal T. (2017). Essop v home office: Proving indirect discrimination.  Lowenthal T. (2017). Essop v home office: Proving indirect discrimination."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","unstructured":"Nelson R. K. Winling L. Marciano R. & Connolly N. (2016). Mapping inequality. American Panorama. Retrieved from https:\/\/dsl.richmond.edu\/panorama\/redlining\/#loc=5\/36.721\/-96.943&opacity=0.8&text=intro  Nelson R. K. Winling L. Marciano R. & Connolly N. (2016). Mapping inequality. American Panorama. Retrieved from https:\/\/dsl.richmond.edu\/panorama\/redlining\/#loc=5\/36.721\/-96.943&opacity=0.8&text=intro"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rawls J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press.  Rawls J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674042605"}],"container-title":["AI Matters"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3340470.3340477","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3340470.3340477","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,18]],"date-time":"2025-06-18T00:25:49Z","timestamp":1750206349000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3340470.3340477"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"references-count":19,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3340470.3340477"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3340470.3340477","relation":{},"ISSN":["2372-3483"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2372-3483","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,5]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2019-08-05","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}