{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T18:27:16Z","timestamp":1777746436594,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]],"date-time":"2019-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J. Hum.-Robot Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Robot-assisted language learning (RALL) is becoming a more commonly studied area of human-robot interaction (HRI). This research draws on theories and methods from many different fields, with researchers utilizing different instructional methods, robots, and populations to evaluate the effectiveness of RALL. This survey details the characteristics of robots used\u2014form, voice, immediacy, non-verbal cues, and personalization\u2014along with study implementations, discussing research findings. It also analyzes robot effectiveness. While research clearly shows that robots can support native and foreign language acquisition, it has been unclear what benefits robots provide over computer-assisted language learning. This survey examines the results of relevant studies from 2004 (RALL's inception) to 2017. Results suggest that robots may be uniquely suited to aid in language production, with apparent benefits in comparison to other technology. As well, research consistently indicates that robots provide unique advantages in increasing learning motivation and in-task engagement, and decreasing anxiety, though long-term benefits are uncertain. Throughout this survey, future areas of exploration are suggested, with the hope that answers to these questions will allow for more robust design and implementation guidelines in RALL.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3345506","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]],"date-time":"2019-12-11T13:27:18Z","timestamp":1576070838000},"page":"1-36","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":95,"title":["A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL)"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Natasha","family":"Randall","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Informatics, Computer Science, and Engineering, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654310368803"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-6807(199707)34:3<219::AID-PITS4>3.0.CO;2-J"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2013.6628428"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HUMANOIDS.2014.7041509"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0286-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","first-page":"32","article-title":"Exploring social robots as a tool for special education to teach english to iranian kids with autism","volume":"4","author":"Alemi Minoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Rob., Theor. Appl."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Employing humanoid robots for teaching English language in Iranian junior high schools","volume":"11","author":"Alemi Minoo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Humanoid Rob."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRoM.2014.6990994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-70022-9_25"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3029798.3038401"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24158"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2016.7745196"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Social robots for education: A review. Sci. Rob. 3, 21 (15","author":"Belpaeme Tony","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","volume-title":"Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis","author":"Birdsong David","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410601667"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X013006004"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pragma.2009.12.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Language teaching approaches: An overview. Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language","author":"Celce-Murcia Marianne"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","first-page":"13","article-title":"Exploring the possibility of using humanoid robots as instructional tools for teaching a second language in primary school","volume":"13","author":"Chang Chih-Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ed. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2010.06.023"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-03364-3_58"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Integrating book, digital content and robot for enhancing elementary school students\u2019 learning of English","volume":"27","author":"Chen Nian-Shing","year":"2011","journal-title":"Austral. J. Ed. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2016.1167090"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S026144480001315X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.43.6.1428"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Symposium of the Austrian HCI and Usability Engineering Group. 322--339","author":"Eimler Sabrina"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","volume-title":"Task-based Language Learning and Teaching","author":"Ellis Rod"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SIU.2013.6531542"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1640377.1640384"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI\u201915)","author":"Gordon Goren","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2696454.2696469"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 30th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence.","author":"Gordon Goren","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/03634528809378702"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2014.377"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Emerging technologies: Robot assisted language learning","volume":"16","author":"Han Jeonghye","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lang. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3745\/JIPS.2008.4.4.159"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1514095.1514163"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of R4L@ HRI2017","author":"Hemminki J."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","unstructured":"James M. Hendrickson. 1992. Storytelling for Foreign Language Learners.  James M. Hendrickson. 1992. Storytelling for Foreign Language Learners."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2015.7333620"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","first-page":"337","article-title":"Authoring robot-assisted instructional materials for improving learning performance and motivation in EFL classrooms","volume":"19","author":"Hong Zeng-Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Edu. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","first-page":"103","article-title":"Analysis on children's tolerance to weak recognition of storytelling robots","volume":"4","author":"Hur YunYoung","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Converg. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN\u201908)","author":"Jang Siekyung","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2701973.2702003"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSDA.2016.7918997"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HRI.2016.7451758"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(89)90003-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","volume-title":"Proc. PRESENCE: 80--87","author":"Jung Younbo","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327051hci1901&2_4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2007.904904"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Junko Kanero Vasfiye Ge\u00e7kin Cansu Oran\u00e7 Ezgi Mamus Aylin C. K\u00fcntay and Tilbe G\u00f6ksun. 2018. Social robots for early language learning: Current evidence and future directions. Child Dev. Persp.  Junko Kanero Vasfiye Ge\u00e7kin Cansu Oran\u00e7 Ezgi Mamus Aylin C. K\u00fcntay and Tilbe G\u00f6ksun. 2018. Social robots for early language learning: Current evidence and future directions. Child Dev. Persp.","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12277"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-25554-5_33"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2906831.2906873"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2909824.3020229"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21437\/SLaTE.2017-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the KAERA Research Forum.","author":"Kim Yanghee","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROMAN.2014.6926325"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219843614500030"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0311-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/Humanoids.2011.6100846"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-012-0142-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE Workshop on Advanced Robotics and Its Social Impacts. 152--155","author":"Kwon Oh-Hun","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","first-page":"100","article-title":"The intelligent robot contents for children with speech-language disorder","volume":"18","author":"Lee Hawon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ed. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SLT.2010.5700837"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0958344010000273"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2559636.2559671"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","volume-title":"Pedagogies proving Krashen's theory of affective filter. Hwa Kang Journal of English Language 8 Literature 14","author":"Chin Lin Grace Hui","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.21437\/SLaTE.2017-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2007.274"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_71_1","first-page":"474","article-title":"A robot-partner for preschool children learning English using socio-cognitive conflict. Edu","volume":"18","author":"Mazzoni Elvis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1514095.1514189"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_73_1","unstructured":"Omar Mubin Suleman Shahid and Christoph Bartneck. 2013. Robot assisted language learning through games: A comparison of two case studies. Retrieved from http:\/\/ir.canterbury.ac.nz\/handle\/10092\/9198.  Omar Mubin Suleman Shahid and Christoph Bartneck. 2013. Robot assisted language learning through games: A comparison of two case studies. Retrieved from http:\/\/ir.canterbury.ac.nz\/handle\/10092\/9198."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_74_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the INTERSPEECH Satellite Workshop on Second Language Studies: Acquisition, Learning, Education and Technology, P2-13","author":"Nagata Ryo","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.kjss.2017.12.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_76_1","volume-title":"PaPeRo. In Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology. 80","author":"Osada Junichi","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1017494.1017498"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02011.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1017541527998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ARSO.2011.6301971"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47437-3_65"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_82_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"A review of challenges in automatic speech recognition","volume":"151","author":"Petkar Harshalata","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSA.2003.818026"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3586789"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_85_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents. 256--268","author":"Astrid"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0266-4909.2003.00020.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_87_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1613--1622","author":"Saerbeck Martin"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_88_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Listening to what the world says: Bilingualism and earnings in the United States","volume":"87","author":"Saiz Albert","year":"2006","journal-title":"Listening"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.07.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3587463"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2909824.3020222"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMPANION.2017.8287073"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2008.00480.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2007.219"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_95_1","first-page":"399","article-title":"A model of robot-assisted assessment of primary school students\u2019 English speaking","volume":"18","author":"Shim KyuNam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Education"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_96_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction Extended Abstracts. 11--12","author":"Dong-Hee Shin Shin","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_97_1","volume-title":"Qualitative exploration on children's interactions in telepresence robot assisted language learning. \ud55c\uad6d\uc735\ud569\ud559\ud68c\ub17c\ubb38\uc9c0 8, 3","author":"Cathy Shin Kyoung Wan","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_98_1","first-page":"03322","article-title":"Transfer learning from adult to children for speech recognition: Evaluation, analysis and recommendations","volume":"1805","author":"Shivakumar Prashanth Gurunath","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arxiv Preprint ArXiv"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_99_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Children teach a care-receiving robot to promote their learning: Field experiments in a classroom for vocabulary learning","volume":"1","author":"Tanaka Fumihide","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hum.-Rob. Interact."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2013.6697211"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12369-015-0307-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3029798.3038332"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00073"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_104_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 16th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication (RO-MAN\u201907)","author":"Wainer Joshua"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131404"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT.2009.147"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_107_1","first-page":"296","article-title":"Using tangible companions for enhancing learning English conversation. Edu","volume":"16","author":"Wang Yi Hsuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_108_1","volume-title":"A Physical Robot's Effect on Vocabulary Learning","author":"Wedenborn Andreas"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_109_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction, Extended Abstracts. 65--66","author":"Cynthia Breazeal Westlund","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_110_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Conference Proceedings New Friends 2015","author":"Westlund J. Kory","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_111_1","first-page":"32","volume-title":"The 1st International Conference on Social Robots in Therapy and Education","author":"Westlund J. Kory","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_112_1","volume-title":"Breazeal","author":"Kory Westlund Jacqueline M.","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/036452042000228054"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2013.792844"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2013.6697183"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_116_1","volume-title":"Advances in Autonomous Mini Robots","author":"Yorita Akihiro"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_117_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT\u201906)","author":"You Zhen-Jia","year":"2006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2009.00989.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_119_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-25504-5_15"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47437-3_62"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_121_1","unstructured":"Figure 1.2 http:\/\/www.bartneck.de\/2009\/08\/12\/photos-of-philips-icat-robot\/. Christopher Bartneck. 5\/9\/2019.  Figure 1.2 http:\/\/www.bartneck.de\/2009\/08\/12\/photos-of-philips-icat-robot\/. Christopher Bartneck. 5\/9\/2019."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_122_1","unstructured":"Figure 1.3. https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/automaton\/robotics\/artificial-intelligence\/mit-dragonbot-evolving-to-better-teach-kids. Polly Guggenheim. 5\/9\/2019.  Figure 1.3. https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/automaton\/robotics\/artificial-intelligence\/mit-dragonbot-evolving-to-better-teach-kids. Polly Guggenheim. 5\/9\/2019."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3345506","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3345506","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T23:13:19Z","timestamp":1750201999000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3345506"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3345506"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3345506","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-9522"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2573-9522","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-06-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-07-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-12-11","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}