{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T20:27:56Z","timestamp":1785702476762,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":188,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]],"date-time":"2020-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601251200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"MONKS","award":["1\/05-14-27719-1\/19"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1\/05-14-27719-1\/19"]}]},{"name":"SGS","award":["SP2020\/65"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SP2020\/65"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007601","name":"Horizon 2020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["857156 and 820466"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["857156 and 820466"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007601","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Comput. Surv."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The convergence of quantum cryptography with applications used in everyday life is a topic drawing attention from the industrial and academic worlds. The development of quantum electronics has led to the practical achievement of quantum devices that are already available on the market and waiting for their first application on a broader scale. A major aspect of quantum cryptography is the methodology of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), which is used to generate and distribute symmetric cryptographic keys between two geographically separate users using the principles of quantum physics. In previous years, several successful QKD networks have been created to test the implementation and interoperability of different practical solutions. This article surveys previously applied methods, showing techniques for deploying QKD networks and current challenges of QKD networking. Unlike studies focusing on optical channels and optical equipment, this survey focuses on the network aspect by considering network organization, routing and signaling protocols, simulation techniques, and a software-defined QKD networking approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3402192","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]],"date-time":"2020-09-28T10:45:25Z","timestamp":1601289925000},"page":"1-41","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":291,"title":["Quantum Key Distribution"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"53","author":[{"given":"Miralem","family":"Mehic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcin","family":"Niemiec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VSB - Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic and AGH University of Science and Technology, Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Rass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universitaet Klagenfurt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiajun","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"QuantumCTek Co., Ltd., Anhui, Hefei, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Momtchil","family":"Peev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Huawei Technologies Duesseldorf GmbH, Riesstra\u00dfe, Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alejandro","family":"Aguado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Computational Simulation, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vicente","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Computational Simulation and Dept. LSIIS, ETSIinf, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Schauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Security 8 Communication Technologies, Center for Digital Safety 8 Security, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Poppe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Security 8 Communication Technologies, Center for Digital Safety 8 Security, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christoph","family":"Pacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Security 8 Communication Technologies, Center for Digital Safety 8 Security, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Miroslav","family":"Voznak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/18.256484"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SFCS.1994.365700"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1666-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_4_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computers, Systems and Signal Processing","volume":"175","author":"Bennett Charles H.","year":"1984"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0000(81)90033-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/382780.382781"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.85.441"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_8_1","volume-title":"A survey on quantum channel capacities","author":"Gyongyosi Laszlo","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_9_1","volume-title":"Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering","author":"Martin Vicente"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcs.2014.09.018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/NOC-OCI.2013.6582861"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_12_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Coexistence of high-bit-rate quantum key distribution and data on optical fiber","author":"Patel K.","year":"2012","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_13_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Wavelength assignment in hybrid quantum-classical networks. Sci","volume":"8","author":"Bahrani Sima","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rep."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/863955.863982"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219749908003529"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robert J. Runser Thomas Chapuran Paul Toliver Nicholas A. Peters Matthew S. Goodman Jon T. Kosloski Nnake Nweke Scott R. McNown Richard J. Hughes Danna Rosenberg Charles G. Peterson Kevin P. McCabe Jane E. Nordholt Kush Tyagi Philip A. Hiskett and Nicholas Dallmann. 2007. Progress toward quantum communications networks: Opportunities and challenges. In Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits IX. 64760I--64760I--15. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1117\/12.708669  Robert J. Runser Thomas Chapuran Paul Toliver Nicholas A. Peters Matthew S. Goodman Jon T. Kosloski Nnake Nweke Scott R. McNown Richard J. Hughes Danna Rosenberg Charles G. Peterson Kevin P. McCabe Jane E. Nordholt Kush Tyagi Philip A. Hiskett and Nicholas Dallmann. 2007. Progress toward quantum communications networks: Opportunities and challenges. In Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits IX. 64760I--64760I--15. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1117\/12.708669","DOI":"10.1117\/12.708669"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_17_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the European Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics and the International Quantum Electronics Conference. IEEE, 1--1. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10","author":"Schmitt-Manderbach T.","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2013.46"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_19_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Nanobob: A CubeSat mission concept for quantum communication experiments in an uplink configuration","volume":"5","author":"Kerstel Erik","year":"2018","journal-title":"EPJ Quant. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_20_1","volume-title":"Soon Xin Ng, and Lajos Hanzo","author":"Hosseinidehaj Nedasadat","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2013.6576338"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/4\/045017"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/4\/1\/382"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/0256-307X\/34\/9\/090302"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_25_1","volume-title":"Quantum Communications and Cryptography","author":"Sergienko Alexander V. A. V."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_26_1","volume-title":"Progress in Optics.","author":"Dusek Miloslav"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_27_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Security of trusted repeater quantum key distribution networks","volume":"18","author":"Salvail Louis","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comput. Sec."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","volume-title":"Applied Quantum Cryptography","author":"Kollmitzer Christian","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-04831-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_29_1","unstructured":"Chip Elliott and H. Yeh. 2007. DARPA Quantum Network Testbed. Technical Report. BBN Technologies Cambridge New York New York. Retrieved from http:\/\/oai.dtic.mil\/oai\/oai?verb&equals;getRecord.  Chip Elliott and H. Yeh. 2007. DARPA Quantum Network Testbed. Technical Report. BBN Technologies Cambridge New York New York. Retrieved from http:\/\/oai.dtic.mil\/oai\/oai?verb&equals;getRecord."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5755\/j01.eie.21.6.13768"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11128-017-1702-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_32_1","volume-title":"Building the quantum network. New J. Phys. 4 (July","author":"Elliott Chip","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_33_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Architecture and protocols of the future European quantum key distribution network","volume":"1","author":"Dianati Mehrdad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sec. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_34_1","unstructured":"Aysajan Abidin and Jan-\u00c5ke Larsson. 2011. Security of authentication with a fixed key in quantum key distribution. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1109.5168.  Aysajan Abidin and Jan-\u00c5ke Larsson. 2011. Security of authentication with a fixed key in quantum key distribution. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1109.5168."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2014.2317312"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10922-010-9162-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_37_1","volume-title":"SECOQC white paper on quantum key distribution and cryptography. arXiv preprint quant-ph\/0701168","author":"Alleaume Romain","year":"2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/CLEO_AT.2011.JTuC1"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_39_1","volume-title":"Applicability of quantum cryptography for securing mobile communication networks. Long-Term and Dynamical Aspects of Information Security: Emerging Trends in Information and Communication Security","author":"Marhoefer Michael"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_40_1","series-title":"Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Lecture Notes in Computer Science)","volume-title":"Quantum network coding","author":"Hayashi Masahito"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LEOSST.2006.1694006"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_42_1","volume-title":"The engineering of a scalable multi-site communications system utilizing quantum key distribution (QKD). Quant. Sci. Technol. 3, 2","author":"Tysowski Piotr K.","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_43_1","unstructured":"G. Gilbert and M. Hamrick. 2000. Practical quantum cryptography: A comprehensive analysis (part one). Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/quant-ph\/0009027.  G. Gilbert and M. Hamrick. 2000. Practical quantum cryptography: A comprehensive analysis (part one). Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/quant-ph\/0009027."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.74.145"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.81.1301"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoi Kwong Lo Marcos Curty and Kiyoshi Tamaki. 2014. Secure quantum key distribution. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038\/nphoton.2014.149  Hoi Kwong Lo Marcos Curty and Kiyoshi Tamaki. 2014. Secure quantum key distribution. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038\/nphoton.2014.149","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2014.149"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_47_1","unstructured":"Feihu Xu Xiongfeng Ma Qiang Zhang Hoi-Kwong Lo and Jian-Wei Pan. 2019. Quantum cryptography with realistic devices. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1903.09051.  Feihu Xu Xiongfeng Ma Qiang Zhang Hoi-Kwong Lo and Jian-Wei Pan. 2019. Quantum cryptography with realistic devices. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/1903.09051."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2018.2843136"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/7\/075003"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2014.327"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.121.190502"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.37.001008"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/7\/075002"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_55_1","unstructured":"Morgen Peck. 2007. Geneva Vote Will Use Quantum Cryptography. Retrieved from http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/computing\/networks\/geneva-vote-will-use-quantum-cryptography.  Morgen Peck. 2007. Geneva Vote Will Use Quantum Cryptography. Retrieved from http:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/computing\/networks\/geneva-vote-will-use-quantum-cryptography."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAB.27.00A185"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2013.2291391"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09500340412331283633"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.59.169"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07241"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H.-J. Briegel W. D\u00fcr J. I. Cirac and P. Zoller. 1998. Quantum repeaters for communication. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/quant-ph\/9803056.  H.-J. Briegel W. D\u00fcr J. I. Cirac and P. Zoller. 1998. Quantum repeaters for communication. Retrieved from http:\/\/arxiv.org\/abs\/quant-ph\/9803056.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-1454-9_11"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.279.5348.205"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_64_1","volume-title":"Quantum Teleportation, Quantum Computation","author":"Bouwmeester Dirk"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.76.722"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35106500"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41566-019-0468-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04341-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V. Krutyanskiy M. Meraner J. Schupp V. Krcmarsky H. Hainzer and B. P. Lanyon. 2019. Light-matter entanglement over 50 km of optical fibre. npj Quant. Inf. 5 1 (2019). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038\/s41534-019-0186-3  V. Krutyanskiy M. Meraner J. Schupp V. Krcmarsky H. Hainzer and B. P. Lanyon. 2019. Light-matter entanglement over 50 km of optical fibre. npj Quant. Inf. 5 1 (2019). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1038\/s41534-019-0186-3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41534-019-0186-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_70_1","volume-title":"Ronald Hanson, Stephanie Wehner, Matthew Skrzypczyk, Tim Coopmans, Leon Wubben, Filip Rozp\u0229dek, Matteo Pompili, Arian Stolk, Przemys\u0142aw Pawe\u0142czak, and Robert Knegjens.","author":"Dahlberg Axel","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.18.027217"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.108.130503"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan Lin Tang Hua Lei Yin Qi Zhao Hui Liu Xiang Xiang Sun Ming Qi Huang Wei Jun Zhang Si Jing Chen Lu Zhang Li Xing You Zhen Wang Yang Liu Chao Yang Lu Xiao Jiang Xiongfeng Ma Qiang Zhang Teng Yun Chen and Jian Wei Pan. 2016. Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution over untrustful metropolitan network. Phys. Rev. X (2016). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1103\/PhysRevX.6.011024  Yan Lin Tang Hua Lei Yin Qi Zhao Hui Liu Xiang Xiang Sun Ming Qi Huang Wei Jun Zhang Si Jing Chen Lu Zhang Li Xing You Zhen Wang Yang Liu Chao Yang Lu Xiao Jiang Xiongfeng Ma Qiang Zhang Teng Yun Chen and Jian Wei Pan. 2016. Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution over untrustful metropolitan network. Phys. Rev. X (2016). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1103\/PhysRevX.6.011024","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevX.6.011024"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_74_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution over asymmetric channel and unstable channel. Sci","volume":"8","author":"Hu Xiao-Long","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rep."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_75_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ICS Workshop of Information Security. IEEE, 131--136","author":"Schartner P."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_76_1","first-page":"22","article-title":"Turning quantum cryptography against itself: How to avoid indirect eavesdropping in quantum networks by passive and active adversaries","volume":"5","author":"Rass Stefan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Syst. Meas."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2010.2050686"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICQNM.2009.26"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_79_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Security and Cryptography (SECRYPT\u201911)","author":"Rass Stefan","year":"2011"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10922-012-9229-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_81_1","first-page":"148","article-title":"Complexity of network design for private communication and the P-vs-NP question","volume":"5","author":"Rass S.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Applic."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_82_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Foiling covert channels and malicious classical post-processing units in quantum key distribution. npj","volume":"5","author":"Curty Marcos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quant. Inf."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.image.2004.09.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_84_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications","volume":"3","author":"Ma Zheng","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_85_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 25th IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems. 82--88","author":"Tang Chiping"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_86_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM\u201905)","author":"Tao Shu","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2010.2096232"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/885651.781069"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_89_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE 20th Annual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications Society (INFOCOM\u201901)","author":"Labovitz C.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2003.818687"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_91_1","volume-title":"Quantum Communications and Cryptography","author":"Sergienko Alexander"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_92_1","volume-title":"Proc. SPIE 5815","volume":"5815","author":"Elliott Chip","year":"2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.92.057901"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1834439"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.37.002869"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_96_1","volume-title":"Pearson","author":"Myers John M.","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_97_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Semantics, Knowledge and Grid. 453--456","author":"Zhang Ming","year":"2008"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_98_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"OSPF Version 2","volume":"1247","author":"Moy John T.","year":"1991","journal-title":"Internet Req. Comm. RFC"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_99_1","unstructured":"Barnum Pearson Brig and David Elliott Spencer. 2010. Systems and methods for implementing routing protocols and algorithms for quantum cryptographic key transport. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.google.com\/patents\/US7706535.  Barnum Pearson Brig and David Elliott Spencer. 2010. Systems and methods for implementing routing protocols and algorithms for quantum cryptographic key transport. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.google.com\/patents\/US7706535."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax0578"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_101_1","unstructured":"John Costello. 2017. Chinese efforts in quantum information science: Drivers milestones and strategic implications. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.uscc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/John&percnt;20Costello_Written&percnt;20Testimony_Final2.pdf.  John Costello. 2017. Chinese efforts in quantum information science: Drivers milestones and strategic implications. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.uscc.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/John&percnt;20Costello_Written&percnt;20Testimony_Final2.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_102_1","unstructured":"SiliconAngle. 2018. Quantum Xchange to build first quantum network in U.S. offering \u201cunbreakable encryption.\u201d Retrieved from https:\/\/siliconangle.com\/2018\/06\/26\/quantum-xchange-build-first-quantum-network-u-s-offering-unbreakable-encryption\/.  SiliconAngle. 2018. Quantum Xchange to build first quantum network in U.S. offering \u201cunbreakable encryption.\u201d Retrieved from https:\/\/siliconangle.com\/2018\/06\/26\/quantum-xchange-build-first-quantum-network-u-s-offering-unbreakable-encryption\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_103_1","volume-title":"Meet the first commercial quantum communication network in the United States.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_104_1","unstructured":"ID Quantique. 2019. Quantum Xchange and ID Quantique make ultra-secure quantum networks a reality for leading U.S. industries. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.idquantique.com\/quantum-xchange-and-id-quantique-make-ultra-secure-quantum-networks-a-reality-for-leading-us-industries\/.  ID Quantique. 2019. Quantum Xchange and ID Quantique make ultra-secure quantum networks a reality for leading U.S. industries. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.idquantique.com\/quantum-xchange-and-id-quantique-make-ultra-secure-quantum-networks-a-reality-for-leading-us-industries\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_105_1","unstructured":"SPIE. 2019. Quantum Xchange tests Toshiba\u2019s QKD network and doubles capacity. Retrieved from https:\/\/optics.org\/news\/10\/4\/50.  SPIE. 2019. Quantum Xchange tests Toshiba\u2019s QKD network and doubles capacity. Retrieved from https:\/\/optics.org\/news\/10\/4\/50."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/7\/075001"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_107_1","unstructured":"Quantum Support Action. 2018. Supporting Quantum Technologies beyond H2020. (2018).  Quantum Support Action. 2018. Supporting Quantum Technologies beyond H2020. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_108_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"The European quantum technologies flagship programme","volume":"2","author":"Riedel Max F.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Quant. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_109_1","volume-title":"Chief of Europe\u2019s \u20ac1-billion brain project steps down. Nature (Aug","author":"Vesper Inga","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_110_1","unstructured":"A. Touzalin. 2016. Quantum manifesto: A new area of technology. Retrieved from http:\/\/Qurope.Eu\/Manifesto.  A. Touzalin. 2016. Quantum manifesto: A new area of technology. Retrieved from http:\/\/Qurope.Eu\/Manifesto."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_111_1","first-page":"2","article-title":"Europe\u2019s quantum flagship initiative","volume":"4","author":"Riedel Max","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quant. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_112_1","unstructured":"COST Action CA 15220. Quantum technology in space. Retrieved from http:\/\/qtspace.eu\/.  COST Action CA 15220. Quantum technology in space. Retrieved from http:\/\/qtspace.eu\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_113_1","volume-title":"H2020-SU-ICT-2018-3.","author":"E.","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar Sarkar T. G. Basavaraju and C. Puttamadappa. 2008. Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks. Vol. 1. CRC Press.  Kumar Sarkar T. G. Basavaraju and C. Puttamadappa. 2008. Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless Networks. Vol. 1. CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420062229"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_115_1","first-page":"8","article-title":"Field test of a practical secure communication network with decoy-state quantum cryptography","volume":"17","author":"Chen Teng-Yun","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Expr."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_116_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-009-0526-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_117_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Optical Fiber Communication Conference. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10","author":"Xu Fang-Xing","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.35.002454"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_119_1","first-page":"18","article-title":"Field and long-term demonstration of a wide area quantum key distribution network","volume":"22","author":"Wang Shuang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Expr."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_120_1","first-page":"18","article-title":"Large scale quantum key distribution: Challenges and solutions [Invited]","volume":"26","author":"Zhang Qiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Expr."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/508441a"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_122_1","unstructured":"European Commission. 2017. China to launch world\u2019s first quantum communication network. Retrieved from https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/article\/id\/122516.trending-science-china-to-launch-worlds-first-quantum-communication-network\/en.  European Commission. 2017. China to launch world\u2019s first quantum communication network. Retrieved from https:\/\/cordis.europa.eu\/article\/id\/122516.trending-science-china-to-launch-worlds-first-quantum-communication-network\/en."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_123_1","unstructured":"ChinaDaily. 2017. Quantum tech to link Jinan governments. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.chinadaily.com.cn\/china\/2017-07\/11\/content_30065215.htm.  ChinaDaily. 2017. Quantum tech to link Jinan governments. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.chinadaily.com.cn\/china\/2017-07\/11\/content_30065215.htm."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_124_1","volume-title":"Quantum key distribution in field implementations","author":"Travagnin Martino"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_125_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ITU QIT4N Workshop Shanghai.","author":"Zhao Yong","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_126_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.006010"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_127_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computer and Communications (ICCC\u201916)","volume":"1","author":"Ma Chenhui","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_128_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IAEAC.2017.8054476"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_129_1","volume-title":"Nai Le Liu, and Jian Wei Pan","author":"Zhang Qiang","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_130_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/2058-9565\/ab19d1"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_131_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2016.50"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_132_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Asymmetric protocols for scalable high-rate measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution networks","author":"Wang Wenyuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_133_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2532458"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_134_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juan Yin Yuan Cao Yu-Huai Li Sheng-Kai Liao Liang Zhang Ji-Gang Ren Wen-Qi Cai Al. Wei-Yue Liu Hui Dai Bo Li Guang-Bing Li Qi-Ming Lu Yun-Hong Gong Yu Xu Shuang-Lin Li Feng-Zhi Li Ya-Yun Yin Zi-Qing Jiang Ming Li Jian-Jun Jia Dong He Ge Ren Yi-Lin Zhou Xiao-Xiang Zhang Na Wang Xiang Chang Zhen-Cai Zhu Nai-Le Liu Yu-Ao Chen Chao-Yang Lu Rong Shu Cheng-Zhi Peng Jian-Yu Wang and Jian-Wei Pan. 2017. Satellite-based entanglement distribution over 1200 kilometers. Science 356 6343 (2017) 1140--1144. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aan3211  Juan Yin Yuan Cao Yu-Huai Li Sheng-Kai Liao Liang Zhang Ji-Gang Ren Wen-Qi Cai Al. Wei-Yue Liu Hui Dai Bo Li Guang-Bing Li Qi-Ming Lu Yun-Hong Gong Yu Xu Shuang-Lin Li Feng-Zhi Li Ya-Yun Yin Zi-Qing Jiang Ming Li Jian-Jun Jia Dong He Ge Ren Yi-Lin Zhou Xiao-Xiang Zhang Na Wang Xiang Chang Zhen-Cai Zhu Nai-Le Liu Yu-Ao Chen Chao-Yang Lu Rong Shu Cheng-Zhi Peng Jian-Yu Wang and Jian-Wei Pan. 2017. Satellite-based entanglement distribution over 1200 kilometers. Science 356 6343 (2017) 1140--1144. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1126\/science.aan3211","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan3211"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_135_1","unstructured":"Tom Vergoossen Sergio Loarte Robert Bedington Hans Kuiper and Alexander Ling. 2019. Satellite constellations for trusted node QKD networks. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/1903.07845.pdf.  Tom Vergoossen Sergio Loarte Robert Bedington Hans Kuiper and Alexander Ling. 2019. Satellite constellations for trusted node QKD networks. Retrieved from https:\/\/arxiv.org\/pdf\/1903.07845.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_136_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2019.2956079"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_137_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2015.2465384"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_138_1","volume-title":"Floriano De Rango, and Miroslav Voznak","author":"Fazio Peppino","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_139_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2014.2307315"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_140_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 35th European Conference on Optical Communication. 3--4.","author":"Maurhart O."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_141_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Ubiquitous and Future Networks (ICUFN\u201916)","author":"Tanizawa Yoshimichi","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_142_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on Image and Signal Processing. 552--556","author":"Lang Jun","year":"2012"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_143_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1049\/cp.2011.1461"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_144_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-005-1766-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_145_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOM.1999.751454"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_146_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09500340.2017.1360956"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_147_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.2017.2740426"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_148_1","volume-title":"Toward designing a quantum key distrubution network. Adva. Electric. Electron. Eng. 14, 4 Special Issue","author":"Mehic Miralem","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_149_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSUSC.2019.2913948"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_150_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overview of quantum key distribution metropolitan optical networking technology","volume":"40","author":"Hua Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Commun."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_151_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.11.000067"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_152_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1355734.1355746"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_154_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2018.2810334"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_155_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2018.2834949"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_156_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OFC.2019.Th4C.6"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_157_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 42nd European Conference on Optical Communication (ECOC\u201916)","author":"Aguado Alejandro","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_158_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2019.1800763"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_159_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2016.2646921"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_160_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Quantum Cryptography (QCrypt\u201918)","author":"Martin Vicente","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_161_1","first-page":"10","article-title":"Hybrid conventional and quantum security for software defined and virtualized networks","volume":"9","author":"Aguado Alejandro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Optic. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_162_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.11.00A209"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_163_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Quantum, Nano\/Bio, and Micro Technologies (ICQNM\u201915)","author":"Marksteiner Stefan","year":"2015"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_164_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Virtual network function deployment and service automation to provide end-to-end quantum encryption","volume":"10","author":"Aguado Alejandro","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Optic. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_165_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ECOC.2018.8535267"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_166_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700656"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_167_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.026453"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_168_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/JOCN.11.000285"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_169_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the European Conference on Optical Communication (ECOC\u201918)","author":"Ou Y.","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_170_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.002544"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_171_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.19.010387"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_172_1","volume-title":"Queuing Theory and Telecommunications","author":"Giambene Giovanni"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_173_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling (ONDM\u201917)","author":"Aguado A."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_174_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-69911-0_11"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_175_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Quantum Cryptography (QCRYPT\u201913)","author":"Maurhart Oliver","year":"2013"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_176_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/BIHTEL.2016.7775711"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_177_1","unstructured":"QuTech. 2018. SimulaQron. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.simulaqron.org\/.  QuTech. 2018. SimulaQron. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.simulaqron.org\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_178_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CONTEL.2005.185853"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_179_1","first-page":"1251","article-title":"Event-by-event simulation of quantum cryptography protocols","volume":"5","author":"Zhao Shuang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Computat. Theoret. Nanosci."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_180_1","volume-title":"Quirk: Quantum circuit simulator. A drag-and-drop quantum circuit simulator.","author":"Gidney Craig","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_181_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2015.2399101"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_182_1","unstructured":"ETSI. 2020. ETSI official. Retrieved from www.etsi.org.  ETSI. 2020. ETSI official. Retrieved from www.etsi.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_183_1","unstructured":"IEEE Standards Association. 2016. Software-defined quantum communication working group. Retrieved from www.standards.ieee.org\/project\/1913.html.  IEEE Standards Association. 2016. Software-defined quantum communication working group. Retrieved from www.standards.ieee.org\/project\/1913.html."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_184_1","first-page":"246","article-title":"Specification and description language (SDL)","volume":"100","author":"ITU-T Study Group","year":"2000","journal-title":"Telecomm. Standard. Sect. ITU"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_185_1","unstructured":"ITU-T. 2020. ITU-T Study Group 17 - Security. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/about\/groups\/Pages\/sg17.aspx.  ITU-T. 2020. ITU-T Study Group 17 - Security. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/about\/groups\/Pages\/sg17.aspx."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_186_1","unstructured":"ITU-T. 2019. ITU-T focus group on quantum information technology for networks (FG-QIT4N). Retrieved from https:\/\/www.itu.int\/md\/T17-TSB-CIR-0201.  ITU-T. 2019. ITU-T focus group on quantum information technology for networks (FG-QIT4N). Retrieved from https:\/\/www.itu.int\/md\/T17-TSB-CIR-0201."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_187_1","unstructured":"ISO\/IEC. 2006. ISO\/IEC 7812-1:2006 Identification cards -- Identification of issuers -- Part 1: Numbering system. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.iso.org.  ISO\/IEC. 2006. ISO\/IEC 7812-1:2006 Identification cards -- Identification of issuers -- Part 1: Numbering system. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.iso.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_188_1","unstructured":"IETF. 2018. Quantum Internet proposed research group (QIRG). Retrieved from https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/rg\/qirg\/about\/.  IETF. 2018. Quantum Internet proposed research group (QIRG). Retrieved from https:\/\/datatracker.ietf.org\/rg\/qirg\/about\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_189_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1367-2630\/11\/5\/055051"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_190_1","volume-title":"Quantum Africa 2010: Theoretical and Experimental Foundations of Recent Quantum Technology","author":"Lenhart Gaby"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_191_1","volume-title":"The Chinese QKD Networks 3rd ETSI Quantum Safe Cryptography","author":"Xiang Hong","year":"2015"}],"container-title":["ACM Computing Surveys"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3402192","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3402192","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T22:41:34Z","timestamp":1750200094000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3402192"}},"subtitle":["A Networking Perspective"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]]},"references-count":188,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3402192"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3402192","relation":{},"ISSN":["0360-0300","1557-7341"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0360-0300","type":"print"},{"value":"1557-7341","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2019-03-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2020-05-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2020-09-28","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}