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To address these issues, we propose Virtual Paving, which aims to assist independent navigation by rendering a smooth path to visually impaired people through multi-modal feedback. This work assumes that a path has been planned to avoid obstacles and focuses on the feedback design to guide users along the path safely, smoothly, and efficiently. Firstly, we extracted the design guidelines of Virtual Paving based on an investigation into visually impaired people's current practices and issues with tactile pavings. Next, we developed a multi-modal solution through co-design and evaluation with visually impaired users. This solution included (1) vibrotactile feedback on the shoulders and waist to give readily-perceivable directional cues and (2) audio feedback to describe road conditions ahead of the user. Finally, we evaluated the proposed solution through user tests. Guided by the designed feedback, 16 visually impaired participants successfully completed 127 out of 128 trials with 2.1m-wide basic paths, including straight and curved paths. Subjective feedback indicated that our solution to render Virtual Paving was easy for users to learn, and it also enabled them to walk smoothly. The feasibility and potential limitations for Virtual Paving to support independent navigation in real environments are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3411814","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,4]],"date-time":"2020-09-04T21:39:45Z","timestamp":1599255585000},"page":"1-25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Virtual Paving"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"4","author":[{"given":"Shuchang","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Pervasive Computing, Ministry of Education, Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"}]},{"given":"Ciyuan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Pervasive Computing, Ministry of Education, Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"}]},{"given":"Wenhao","family":"Ge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Pervasive Computing, Ministry of Education, Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"}]},{"given":"Chun","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Pervasive Computing, Ministry of Education, Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"}]},{"given":"Yuanchun","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Pervasive Computing, Ministry of Education, Department of Computer Science and Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","volume-title":"2nd LACCEIInt. 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