{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,31]],"date-time":"2025-07-31T00:42:52Z","timestamp":1753922572309,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]],"date-time":"2021-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623801600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["ACM Trans. Internet Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Many Internet of Things applications in smart cities use elliptic-curve cryptosystems due to their efficiency compared to other well-known public-key cryptosystems such as RSA. One of the important components of an elliptic-curve-based cryptosystem is the elliptic-curve point multiplication which has been shown to be vulnerable to various types of side-channel attacks. Recently, substantial progress has been made in applying deep learning to side-channel attacks. Conceptually, the idea is to monitor a core while it is running encryption for information leakage of a certain kind, for example, power consumption. The knowledge of the underlying encryption algorithm can be used to train a model to recognise the key used for encryption. The model is then applied to traces gathered from the crypto core in order to recover the encryption key. In this article, we propose an RNS GLV elliptic curve cryptography core which is immune to machine learning and deep learning based side-channel attacks. The experimental analysis confirms the proposed crypto core does not leak any information about the private key and therefore it is suitable for hardware implementations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3423555","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]],"date-time":"2021-06-16T14:51:35Z","timestamp":1623855095000},"page":"1-20","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Power Side-Channel Analysis of RNS GLV ECC Using Machine and Deep Learning Algorithms"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3984-5361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamad Ali","family":"Mehrabi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naila","family":"Mukhtar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alireza","family":"Jolfaei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/646761.706156"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/646764.703989"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13389-013-0062-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2020.3013266"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Design and Technology of Integrated Systems in Nanoscale Era (DTIS). 1\u20134. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10","author":"Fournaris A. P.","year":"2016","unstructured":"A. P. Fournaris , L. Papachristodoulou , L. Batina , and N. Sklavos . 2016. Residue number system as a side channel and fault injection attack countermeasure in elliptic curve cryptography . In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Design and Technology of Integrated Systems in Nanoscale Era (DTIS). 1\u20134. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10 .1109\/DTIS. 2016 .7483807 10.1109\/DTIS.2016.7483807 A. P. Fournaris, L. Papachristodoulou, L. Batina, and N. Sklavos. 2016. Residue number system as a side channel and fault injection attack countermeasure in elliptic curve cryptography. In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Design and Technology of Integrated Systems in Nanoscale Era (DTIS). 1\u20134. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1109\/DTIS.2016.7483807"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VLSID.2018.52"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","unstructured":"K. Tiri M. Akmal and I. Verbauwhede. 2002. A dynamic and differential CMOS logic with signal independent power consumption to withstand differential power analysis on SmartCards. 403\u2013406. https:\/\/eprint.iacr.org\/2004\/066.pdf.  K. Tiri M. Akmal and I. Verbauwhede. 2002. A dynamic and differential CMOS logic with signal independent power consumption to withstand differential power analysis on SmartCards. 403\u2013406. https:\/\/eprint.iacr.org\/2004\/066.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648253.752408"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/775832.775845"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","volume-title":"Yinan Kong, and Ashiq Anjum.","author":"Mukhtar Naila","year":"2019","unstructured":"Naila Mukhtar , Mohamad Ali Mehrabi , Yinan Kong, and Ashiq Anjum. 2019 . Machine-learning-based side-channel evaluation of elliptic-curve cryptographic FPGA processor. Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 9, 1 (1 1 2019), 1\u201320. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390\/app9010064 10.3390\/app9010064 Naila Mukhtar, Mohamad Ali Mehrabi, Yinan Kong, and Ashiq Anjum. 2019. Machine-learning-based side-channel evaluation of elliptic-curve cryptographic FPGA processor. Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 9, 1 (1 1 2019), 1\u201320. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390\/app9010064"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TC.2004.13"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/11894063_28"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648255.752716"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems (CHES\u201902)","volume":"2523","author":"Ha Jae Cheol","year":"2003","unstructured":"Jae Cheol Ha and Sang Jae Moon . 2003 . Randomized signed-scalar multiplication of ECC to resist power attacks . In Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems (CHES\u201902) , Lecture Notes in Computer Science , vol. 2523 . Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/3-540-36400-5_40 10.1007\/3-540-36400-5_40 Jae Cheol Ha and Sang Jae Moon. 2003. Randomized signed-scalar multiplication of ECC to resist power attacks. In Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems (CHES\u201902), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 2523. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/3-540-36400-5_40"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648254.752563"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648252.752374"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648254.752574"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/648255.752719"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems(CHES\u201903)","volume":"2779","author":"Kouichi Itoh","year":"2003","unstructured":"Itoh Kouichi , Izu Tetsuya , and Takenaka Masahiko . 2003 . A practical countermeasure against address-bit differential power analysis . In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems(CHES\u201903) . Springer, Berlin.(Lecture Notes in Computer Science) , Vol. 2779 . Springer, 382\u2013396. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-45238-6_30 10.1007\/978-3-540-45238-6_30 Itoh Kouichi, Izu Tetsuya, and Takenaka Masahiko. 2003. A practical countermeasure against address-bit differential power analysis. In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems(CHES\u201903). Springer, Berlin.(Lecture Notes in Computer Science), Vol. 2779. Springer, 382\u2013396. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-45238-6_30"},{"volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC\u201919)","author":"Aujla G. S.","key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","unstructured":"G. S. Aujla , A. Jindal , R. Chaudhary , N. Kumar , S. Vashist , N. Sharma , and M. S. Obaidat . 2019. DLRS: Deep learning-based recommender system for smart healthcare ecosystem . In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC\u201919) . 1\u20136. G. S. Aujla, A. Jindal, R. Chaudhary, N. Kumar, S. Vashist, N. Sharma, and M. S. Obaidat. 2019. DLRS: Deep learning-based recommender system for smart healthcare ecosystem. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC\u201919). 1\u20136."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TII.2019.2945403"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vehcom.2019.100184"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","article-title":"Applications of machine learning techniques in side-channel attacks: A survey","author":"Hettwer Benjamin","year":"2019","unstructured":"Benjamin Hettwer , Stefan Gehrer , and Tim G\u00fcneysu . 2019 . Applications of machine learning techniques in side-channel attacks: A survey . Journal of Cryptographic Engineering (11 Apr 2019). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/s13389-019-00212-8 10.1007\/s13389-019-00212-8 Benjamin Hettwer, Stefan Gehrer, and Tim G\u00fcneysu. 2019. Applications of machine learning techniques in side-channel attacks: A survey. Journal of Cryptographic Engineering (11 Apr 2019). DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/s13389-019-00212-8","journal-title":"Journal of Cryptographic Engineering (11"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13389-011-0023-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Card Research and Advanced Applications. Springer, 79\u201393","author":"Heyszl Johann","year":"2013","unstructured":"Johann Heyszl , Andreas Ibing , Stefan Mangard , Fabrizio De Santis , and Georg Sigl . 2013 . Clustering algorithms for non-profiled single-execution attacks on exponentiations . In Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Card Research and Advanced Applications. Springer, 79\u201393 . Johann Heyszl, Andreas Ibing, Stefan Mangard, Fabrizio De Santis, and Georg Sigl. 2013. Clustering algorithms for non-profiled single-execution attacks on exponentiations. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Smart Card Research and Advanced Applications. Springer, 79\u201393."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-21476-4_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/HST.2016.7495589"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-49445-6_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2029556.2029563"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-66787-4_3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"Deep learning to evaluate secure RSA implementations. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems 2019 (Feb","author":"Carbone Mathieu","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mathieu Carbone , Vincent Conin , Marie-Angela Corn\u00e9lie , Francois Dassance , Guillaume Dufresne , C\u00e9cile Dumas , Emmanuel Prouff , and Alexandre Venelli . 2019. Deep learning to evaluate secure RSA implementations. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems 2019 (Feb . 2019 ), 132\u2013161. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.13154\/tches.v2019.i2.132-161 10.13154\/tches.v2019.i2.132-161 Mathieu Carbone, Vincent Conin, Marie-Angela Corn\u00e9lie, Francois Dassance, Guillaume Dufresne, C\u00e9cile Dumas, Emmanuel Prouff, and Alexandre Venelli. 2019. Deep learning to evaluate secure RSA implementations. IACR Transactions on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems 2019 (Feb. 2019), 132\u2013161. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.13154\/tches.v2019.i2.132-161"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3028823"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"Improved sum of residues modular multiplication algorithm. Cryptography 3, 2 (29 5","author":"Mehrabi Mohamad Ali","year":"2019","unstructured":"Mohamad Ali Mehrabi . 2019. Improved sum of residues modular multiplication algorithm. Cryptography 3, 2 (29 5 2019 ), 1\u201316. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390\/cryptography3020014 10.3390\/cryptography3020014 Mohamad Ali Mehrabi. 2019. Improved sum of residues modular multiplication algorithm. Cryptography 3, 2 (29 5 2019), 1\u201316. DOI:http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3390\/cryptography3020014"},{"volume-title":"The Arithmetic of Elliptic Curves","author":"Silverman Joseph H.","key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","unstructured":"Joseph H. Silverman . 2009. The Arithmetic of Elliptic Curves . Vol. 106 . Springer Verlag . Joseph H. Silverman. 2009. The Arithmetic of Elliptic Curves. Vol. 106. Springer Verlag."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/940321"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","unstructured":"CERTICOM Corp. 2000. Standards for Efficient Cryptography Sec 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters in SECP256K1. www.secg.org.  CERTICOM Corp. 2000. Standards for Efficient Cryptography Sec 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters in SECP256K1. www.secg.org."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/646766.704144"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-01001-9_29"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","unstructured":"SAKURA. ([n. d.]). http:\/\/satoh.cs.uec.ac.jp\/SAKURA\/hardware\/SAKURA-X.html.  SAKURA. ([n. d.]). http:\/\/satoh.cs.uec.ac.jp\/SAKURA\/hardware\/SAKURA-X.html."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3153997"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","volume-title":"d.]). https:\/\/www.xilinx.com\/support\/documentation\/user_guides\/ug479_7Series_DSP48E1.pdfLast accessed","author":"Slice User Guide Series","year":"2020","unstructured":"7 Series DSP48E1 Slice User Guide . ([n. d.]). https:\/\/www.xilinx.com\/support\/documentation\/user_guides\/ug479_7Series_DSP48E1.pdfLast accessed 21 July 2020 . 7 Series DSP48E1 Slice User Guide. ([n. d.]). https:\/\/www.xilinx.com\/support\/documentation\/user_guides\/ug479_7Series_DSP48E1.pdfLast accessed 21 July 2020."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","unstructured":"Project data. ([n. d.]). https:\/\/github.com\/RNS-ECC\/side-channel.  Project data. ([n. d.]). https:\/\/github.com\/RNS-ECC\/side-channel."}],"container-title":["ACM Transactions on Internet Technology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3423555","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3423555","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T22:01:50Z","timestamp":1750197710000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3423555"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3423555"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3423555","relation":{},"ISSN":["1533-5399","1557-6051"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1533-5399"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1557-6051"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,16]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2020-05-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2020-09-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-06-16","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}