{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T04:32:44Z","timestamp":1779337964407,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"CSCW1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,13]],"date-time":"2021-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1618272000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Facebook Research"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,13]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Hundreds of millions of people learn something new online every day. Simultaneously, the study of online education has blossomed within the human computer interaction community, with new systems, experiments, and observations creating and exploring previously undiscovered online learning environments. In this study we endeavor to characterize this entire landscape of online learning experiences using a national survey of 2260 US adults who are balanced to match the demographics of the U.S. We examine the online learning resources that they consult, and we analyze the subjects that they pursue using those resources. Furthermore, we compare both formal and informal online learning experiences on a larger scale than has ever been done before, to our knowledge, to better understand which subjects people are seeking for intensive study. We find that there is a core set of online learning experiences that are central to other experiences and these are shared among the majority of people who learn online. We conclude by showing how looking outside of these core online learning experiences can reveal opportunities for innovation in online education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3449220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]],"date-time":"2021-04-22T17:49:24Z","timestamp":1619113764000},"page":"1-19","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Characterizing the Online Learning Landscape"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Sean","family":"Kross","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eszter","family":"Hargittai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elissa M.","family":"Redmiles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Software Systems, Saarbr\u00fccken, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_2_1_1","volume-title":"Older Americans Went Back To School During The Recession. Did It Pay Off? (December","author":"Airoldi Donna","year":"2016","unstructured":"Donna Airoldi. 2016. Older Americans Went Back To School During The Recession. Did It Pay Off? (December 2016)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_2_1","volume-title":"Creators finally know how much money YouTube makes, and they want more of its. The Verge","author":"Alexander Julia","year":"2020","unstructured":"Julia Alexander. 2020. Creators finally know how much money YouTube makes, and they want more of its. The Verge (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_3_1","volume-title":"Does survey mode still matter? Findings from a 2010 multi-mode comparison. Political Analysis","author":"Ansolabehere Stephen","year":"2014","unstructured":"Stephen Ansolabehere and Brian F Schaffner. 2014. Does survey mode still matter? Findings from a 2010 multi-mode comparison. Political Analysis (2014), 285--303."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/poq"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci6020014"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_6_1","volume-title":"The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom","author":"Benkler Yochai","unstructured":"Yochai Benkler. 2006. The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom. Yale University Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_7_1","volume-title":"Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor","author":"Berners-Lee Tim","unstructured":"Tim Berners-Lee and Mark Fischetti. 2001. Weaving the Web: The Original Design and Ultimate Destiny of the World Wide Web by Its Inventor. DIANE Publishing Company."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/074171365800800303"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_9_1","volume-title":"YouTube ditches its Trending tab for Explore on mobile. The Verge","author":"Carman Ashley","year":"2020","unstructured":"Ashley Carman. 2020. YouTube ditches its Trending tab for Explore on mobile. The Verge (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_10_1","volume-title":"EdMedia+ Innovate Learning","author":"Caudill Jason","unstructured":"Jason Caudill. 2017. The emerging formalization of MOOC coursework: Rise of the MicroMasters. In EdMedia+ Innovate Learning. Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), 1--6."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_11_1","volume-title":"Hours of video uploaded to YouTube every minute as of","author":"Clement J","year":"2019","unstructured":"J Clement. 2019. Hours of video uploaded to YouTube every minute as of May 2019. Statista (2019)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_12_1","volume-title":"Wiki: web collaboration","author":"Ebersbach Anja","unstructured":"Anja Ebersbach, Markus Glaser, Richard Heigl, and Alexander Warta. 2008. Wiki: web collaboration. Springer Science & Business Media."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0963662506064240"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2330601.2330616"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_15_1","unstructured":"Gartner. 2018. Gartner Hype Cycle. https:\/\/www.gartner.com\/technology\/research\/methodologies\/hype-cycle.jsp. Accessed: 2020-05-21."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2876034.2876052"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2445196.2445368"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_18_1","volume-title":"Can MOOC Programs Improve Student Employment Prospects? Available at SSRN 3260695","author":"Hadavand Aboozar","year":"2018","unstructured":"Aboozar Hadavand, Ira Gooding, and Jeffrey T Leek. 2018. Can MOOC Programs Improve Student Employment Prospects? Available at SSRN 3260695 (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2190\/ET.40.3.f"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_20_1","volume-title":"Students' and instructors' use of massive open online courses (MOOCs): Motivations and challenges. Educational research review 12","author":"Hew Khe Foon","year":"2014","unstructured":"Khe Foon Hew and Wing Sum Cheung. 2014. Students' and instructors' use of massive open online courses (MOOCs): Motivations and challenges. Educational research review 12 (2014), 45--58."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_21_1","first-page":"34","article-title":"A fast clustering algorithm to cluster very large categorical data sets in data mining","volume":"3","author":"Huang Zhexue","year":"1997","unstructured":"Zhexue Huang. 1997. A fast clustering algorithm to cluster very large categorical data sets in data mining. DMKD 3, 8 (1997), 34--39.","journal-title":"DMKD"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2699735"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1551-6709.2012.01245.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2724660.2724681"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_25_1","volume-title":"Forcing 'Hard Choices' About Education. The Wall Street Journal","author":"Korn Melissa","year":"2020","unstructured":"Melissa Korn, Douglas Belkin, and Juliet Chung. 2020. Coronavirus Pushes Colleges to the Breaking Point, Forcing 'Hard Choices' About Education. The Wall Street Journal (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3231644.3231662"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.2019.1668849"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1300\/J105v04n01_02"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"David MJ Lazer Matthew A Baum Yochai Benkler Adam J Berinsky Kelly M Greenhill Filippo Menczer Miriam J Metzger Brendan Nyhan Gordon Pennycook David Rothschild et al. 2018. The science of fake news. Science 359 6380 (2018) 1094--1096.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aao2998"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_30_1","volume-title":"YouTube is 15 years old. Business Insider","author":"Leskin Paige","year":"2020","unstructured":"Paige Leskin. 2020. YouTube is 15 years old. Business Insider (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_31_1","volume-title":"A circulation analysis of print books and e-books in on academic research library","author":"Littman Justin","year":"2004","unstructured":"Justin Littman and Lynn Silipigni Connaway. 2004. A circulation analysis of print books and e-books in on academic research library. Library resources and technical services 48, 4 (2004), 256--262."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_32_1","volume-title":"They're Booming. The Wall Street Journal","author":"Lohr Steve","year":"2020","unstructured":"Steve Lohr. 2020. Remember the MOOCs? After Near-Death, They're Booming. The Wall Street Journal (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v11i1.14883"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_34_1","volume-title":"Learning online: What research tells us about whether, when and how","author":"Means Barbara","unstructured":"Barbara Means, Marianne Bakia, and Robert Murphy. 2014. Learning online: What research tells us about whether, when and how. Routledge."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/10802-000"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2998181.2998307"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_37_1","volume-title":"Too. The New York Times","author":"Olson Pammy","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pammy Olson. 2020. Online Classes Boom for Adult Learners, Too. The New York Times (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_38_1","volume-title":"Motivations for residential students to participate in online courses. Quarterly review of distance education 10, 3","author":"Pastore Ray","year":"2009","unstructured":"Ray Pastore and Alison Carr-Chellman. 2009. Motivations for residential students to participate in online courses. Quarterly review of distance education 10, 3 (2009), 263--277."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2567574.2567582"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/0471654728"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1592761.1592779"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_42_1","volume-title":"Personal thoughts on teaching and learning. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly (1954--1958) 3, 4","author":"Rogers Carl R","year":"1957","unstructured":"Carl R Rogers. 1957. Personal thoughts on teaching and learning. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly (1954--1958) 3, 4 (1957), 241--243."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1300\/J002v08n01_07"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/21548455.2017.1371357"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0377-0427(87)90125-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_46_1","volume-title":"Wikipedia: an opportunity to rethink the links between sources\u00e2\u00e2\u0102\u0179 credibility, trust and authority. First monday 22, 11","author":"Sahut Gilles","year":"2017","unstructured":"Gilles Sahut and Andr\u00e9 Tricot. 2017. Wikipedia: an opportunity to rethink the links between sources\u00e2\u00e2\u0102\u0179 credibility, trust and authority. First monday 22, 11 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1805871115"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_48_1","volume-title":"The next generation of distance education","author":"Schwier Richard A","unstructured":"Richard A Schwier. 2012. Comparing formal, non-formal, and informal online learning environments. In The next generation of distance education. Springer, 139--156."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12082"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_50_1","volume-title":"Benjamin Mako Hill, and Samuel Woolley","author":"Shorey Samantha","year":"2020","unstructured":"Samantha Shorey, Benjamin Mako Hill, and Samuel Woolley. 2020. From hanging out to figuring it out: Socializing online as a pathway to computational thinking. New Media & Society (2020), 1461444820923674."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_51_1","unstructured":"Zach Sims and C Bubinski. 2011. Codecademy. URL= http:\/\/www.codecademy.com (2011)."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_52_1","first-page":"471","article-title":"On learning a new language","volume":"20","author":"Stengel Erwin","year":"1939","unstructured":"Erwin Stengel. 1939. On learning a new language. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 20 (1939), 471--479.","journal-title":"International Journal of Psycho-Analysis"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10758-015-9258-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1518701.1518908"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_55_1","volume-title":"Richard Arnold McDermott, and William Snyder","author":"Wenger Etienne","year":"2002","unstructured":"Etienne Wenger, Richard Arnold McDermott, and William Snyder. 2002. Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Harvard Business Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_2_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2724660.2724674"},{"key":"e_1_2_2_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2675133.2675217"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3449220","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3449220","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T21:28:22Z","timestamp":1750195702000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3449220"}},"subtitle":["What and How People Learn Online"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,13]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"CSCW1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,13]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3449220"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3449220","relation":{},"ISSN":["2573-0142"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2573-0142","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2021-04-22","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}