{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T18:26:14Z","timestamp":1776277574187,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,30]],"date-time":"2021-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1625011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Research Foundation\u2014Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), under Projects \u201cPUFMem: Intrinsic Physical Unclonable Functions from Emerging Non-Volatile Memories\u201d","award":["AR 1387\/1-1 and KA 2308\/4-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AR 1387\/1-1 and KA 2308\/4-1"]}]},{"name":"\u201cNANOSEC: Tamper-Evident PUFs Based on Nanostructures for Secure and Robust Hardware Security Primitives\u201d","award":["HE 6457\/4-1 and KA 2308\/3-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HE 6457\/4-1 and KA 2308\/3-1"]}]},{"name":"\u201cNano Security: From Nano-Electronics to Secure Systems\u201d","award":["SPP 2253"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SPP 2253"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J. Emerg. Technol. Comput. Syst."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, a new generation of the Internet of Things (IoT 2.0) is emerging, based on artificial intelligence, the blockchain technology, machine learning, and the constant consolidation of pre-existing systems and subsystems into larger systems. In this work, we construct and examine a proof-of-concept prototype of such a system of systems, which consists of heterogeneous commercial off-the-shelf components, and utilises diverse communication protocols. We recognise the inherent need for lightweight security in this context, and address it by employing a low-cost state-of-the-art security solution. Our solution is based on a novel hardware and software co-engineering paradigm, utilising well-known software-based cryptographic algorithms, in order to maximise the security potential of the hardware security primitive (a Physical Unclonable Function) that is used as a security anchor. The performance of the proposed security solution is evaluated, proving its suitability even for real-time applications. Additionally, the Dolev-Yao attacker model is considered in order to assess the resilience of our solution towards attacks against the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the examined system of systems. In this way, it is confirmed that the proposed solution is able to address the emerging security challenges of the oncoming era of systems of systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3458824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,30]],"date-time":"2021-06-30T19:26:58Z","timestamp":1625081218000},"page":"1-25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["A Lightweight Architecture for Hardware-Based Security in the Emerging Era of Systems of Systems"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0181-7648","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nico","family":"Mexis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Passau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0243-8594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolaos Athanasios","family":"Anagnostopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany and University of Passau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2012-0424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuai","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeast University, China and Rock-Solid Security Lab., China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2967-520X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"Bambach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2078-3976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tolga","family":"Arul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany and University of Passau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Katzenbeisser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Passau, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trpro.2016.05.300"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2899007.2899013"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3406280"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GIIS.2018.8635789"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s20010011"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpro.2018.02.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TrustCom\/BigDataSE.2019.00050"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSOSE.2018.8428757"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1137\/060651380"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1137\/060651380"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1983.1056650"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2013.63"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MECO49872.2020.9134336"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74735-2_5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSCAS.2016.7870046"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2012.98"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"Towards Hardware-Intrinsic Security","author":"Handschuh Helena","unstructured":"Helena Handschuh , Geert-Jan Schrijen , and Pim Tuyls . 2010. Hardware intrinsic security from physically unclonable functions . In Towards Hardware-Intrinsic Security . Springer , 39\u201353. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_2 10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_2 Helena Handschuh, Geert-Jan Schrijen, and Pim Tuyls. 2010. Hardware intrinsic security from physically unclonable functions. In Towards Hardware-Intrinsic Security. Springer, 39\u201353. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2014.2320516"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/WIFS.2012.6412622"},{"key":"#cr-split#-e_1_2_1_20_1.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo Jamshidi (Ed.). 2008. System of Systems Engineering. John Wiley & Sons Inc.DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9780470403501 10.1002\/9780470403501","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470403501"},{"key":"#cr-split#-e_1_2_1_20_1.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mo Jamshidi (Ed.). 2008. System of Systems Engineering. John Wiley & Sons Inc.DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9780470403501","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470403501"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/RE.2018.00061"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","volume-title":"PUF-based software protection for low-end embedded devices","author":"Kohnh\u00e4user Florian","unstructured":"Florian Kohnh\u00e4user , Andr\u00e9 Schaller , and Stefan Katzenbeisser . 2015. PUF-based software protection for low-end embedded devices . In Trust and Trustworthy Computing, Mauro Conti, Matthias Schunter, and Ioannis Askoxylakis (Eds.). Springer International Publishing , Cham , 3\u201321. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-22846-4_1 10.1007\/978-3-319-22846-4_1 Florian Kohnh\u00e4user, Andr\u00e9 Schaller, and Stefan Katzenbeisser. 2015. PUF-based software protection for low-end embedded devices. In Trust and Trustworthy Computing, Mauro Conti, Matthias Schunter, and Ioannis Askoxylakis (Eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, 3\u201321. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-22846-4_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","unstructured":"C. Lipps M. Strufe S. B. Mallikarjun and H. D. Schotten. 2019. Physical layer security for IIoT and CPPS: A cellular-network security approach. In Mobile Communication\u2014Technologies and Applications; 24. ITG-Symposium. 1\u20135.  C. Lipps M. Strufe S. B. Mallikarjun and H. D. Schotten. 2019. Physical layer security for IIoT and CPPS: A cellular-network security approach. In Mobile Communication\u2014Technologies and Applications; 24. ITG-Symposium. 1\u20135."},{"key":"#cr-split#-e_1_2_1_24_1.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Maes and I. Verbauwhede. 2010. Physically unclonable functions: A study on the state of the art and future research directions. In Towards Hardware-Intrinsic Security. Springer 3-37. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_1 10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_1"},{"key":"#cr-split#-e_1_2_1_24_1.2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Maes and I. Verbauwhede. 2010. Physically unclonable functions: A study on the state of the art and future research directions. In Towards Hardware-Intrinsic Security. Springer 3-37. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-14452-3_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MDAT.2016.2544845"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","volume-title":"2017 2nd IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information Communication Technology (RTEICT\u201917)","author":"Naik S.","year":"2017","unstructured":"S. Naik and V. Maral . 2017. Cyber security\u2014IoT . In 2017 2nd IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information Communication Technology (RTEICT\u201917) . 764\u2013767. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/RTEICT. 2017 .8256700 10.1109\/RTEICT.2017.8256700 S. Naik and V. Maral. 2017. Cyber security\u2014IoT. In 2017 2nd IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information Communication Technology (RTEICT\u201917). 764\u2013767. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1109\/RTEICT.2017.8256700"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SESoS\/WDES.2019.00017"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VNC48660.2019.9062785"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1866307.1866335"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2013.2279798"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2018.2822298"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","volume-title":"Boot Aattestation: Secure remote reporting with off-the-shelf IoT sensors. In Computer Security\u2014ESORICS","author":"Schulz Steffen","year":"2017","unstructured":"Steffen Schulz , Andr\u00e9 Schaller , Florian Kohnh\u00e4user , and Stefan Katzenbeisser . 2017 . Boot Aattestation: Secure remote reporting with off-the-shelf IoT sensors. In Computer Security\u2014ESORICS 2017, Simon N. Foley, Dieter Gollmann , and Einar Snekkenes (Eds.). Springer International Publishing , Cham, 437\u2013455. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-66399-9_24 10.1007\/978-3-319-66399-9_24 Steffen Schulz, Andr\u00e9 Schaller, Florian Kohnh\u00e4user, and Stefan Katzenbeisser. 2017. Boot Aattestation: Secure remote reporting with off-the-shelf IoT sensors. In Computer Security\u2014ESORICS 2017, Simon N. Foley, Dieter Gollmann, and Einar Snekkenes (Eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, 437\u2013455. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-319-66399-9_24"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","unstructured":"M. Seaborn and T. Dullien. 2015. Exploiting the DRAM Rowhammer bug to gain kernel privileges. Black Hat USA Mandalay Bay Las Vegas NV.  M. Seaborn and T. Dullien. 2015. Exploiting the DRAM Rowhammer bug to gain kernel privileges. Black Hat USA Mandalay Bay Las Vegas NV."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","volume-title":"Smart Grid Hardware Security","author":"Sideris Argiris","unstructured":"Argiris Sideris , Dimitris Tsiktsiris , Dimitris Ziouzios , and Minas Dasygenis . 2019. Smart Grid Hardware Security . Springer International Publishing , Cham , 85\u2013113. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-03640-9_5 10.1007\/978-3-030-03640-9_5 Argiris Sideris, Dimitris Tsiktsiris, Dimitris Ziouzios, and Minas Dasygenis. 2019. Smart Grid Hardware Security. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 85\u2013113. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-030-03640-9_5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","volume-title":"Reverse fuzzy extractors: Enabling lightweight mutual authentication for PUF-enabled RFIDs","author":"Herrewege Anthony Van","unstructured":"Anthony Van Herrewege , Stefan Katzenbeisser , Roel Maes , Roel Peeters , Ahmad-Reza Sadeghi , Ingrid Verbauwhede , and Christian Wachsmann . 2012. Reverse fuzzy extractors: Enabling lightweight mutual authentication for PUF-enabled RFIDs . In Financial Cryptography and Data Security, Angelos D. Keromytis (Ed.). Springer , Berlin , 374\u2013389. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-32946-3_27 10.1007\/978-3-642-32946-3_27 Anthony Van Herrewege, Stefan Katzenbeisser, Roel Maes, Roel Peeters, Ahmad-Reza Sadeghi, Ingrid Verbauwhede, and Christian Wachsmann. 2012. Reverse fuzzy extractors: Enabling lightweight mutual authentication for PUF-enabled RFIDs. In Financial Cryptography and Data Security, Angelos D. Keromytis (Ed.). Springer, Berlin, 374\u2013389. DOI:https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-642-32946-3_27"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/FiCloud.2016.22"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2616606.2617100"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.23919\/FPL.2017.8056859"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSOSE.2018.8428701"}],"container-title":["ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3458824","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3458824","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T20:12:22Z","timestamp":1750191142000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3458824"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,30]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3458824"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3458824","relation":{},"ISSN":["1550-4832","1550-4840"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1550-4832","type":"print"},{"value":"1550-4840","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2020-06-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-03-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-06-30","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}