{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,12]],"date-time":"2025-11-12T13:23:46Z","timestamp":1762953826637,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]],"date-time":"2021-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.acm.org\/publications\/policies\/copyright_policy#Background"}],"funder":[{"name":"UK Royal Society Award","award":["IEC\\R3\\183047"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IEC\\R3\\183047"]}]},{"name":"Research Council (TRC), Sultanate of Oman","award":["BFP\/RGP\/ICT\/19\/186"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BFP\/RGP\/ICT\/19\/186"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004663","name":"Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan,","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["MOST 110-2636-E-009-018 and 110-2927-I-009-510"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2636-E-009-018 and 110-2927-I-009-510"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004663","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["dl.acm.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J. Data and Information Quality"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) are introduced to improve individuals\u2019 quality of life by offering a wide range of services. They collect a huge amount of data and exchange them with each other and the infrastructure. The collected data usually includes sensitive information about the users and the surrounding environment. Therefore, data security and privacy are among the main challenges in this industry. Blockchain, an emerging distributed ledger, has been considered by the research community as a potential solution for enhancing data security, integrity, and transparency in Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). However, despite the emphasis of governments on the transparency of personal data protection practices, CAV stakeholders have not been successful in communicating appropriate information with the end users regarding the procedure of collecting, storing, and processing their personal data, as well as the data ownership. This article provides a vision of the opportunities and challenges of adopting blockchain in ITS from the \u201cdata transparency\u201d and \u201cprivacy\u201d perspective. The main aim is to answer the following questions: (1)\u00a0Considering the amount of personal data collected by the CAVs, such as location, how would the integration of blockchain technology affect\n            <jats:italic>transparency<\/jats:italic>\n            ,\n            <jats:italic>fairness<\/jats:italic>\n            ,\n            <jats:italic>and lawfulness<\/jats:italic>\n            of personal data processing concerning the data subjects (as this is one of the main principles in the existing data protection regulations)? (2)\u00a0How can the trade-off between transparency and privacy be addressed in blockchain-based ITS use cases?\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1145\/3460003","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]],"date-time":"2021-12-11T19:50:42Z","timestamp":1639252242000},"page":"1-10","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Integration of Blockchain with Connected and Autonomous Vehicles: Vision and Challenge"],"prefix":"10.1145","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Tooska","family":"Dargahi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Salford, Salford, UK"}]},{"given":"Hossein","family":"Ahmadvand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran"}]},{"given":"Mansour Naser","family":"Alraja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dhofar University, Salalah, Sultanate of Oman"}]},{"given":"Chia-Mu","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan"}]}],"member":"320","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","unstructured":"Innovation & Tech Today. 2019. 5 Ways Autonomous Vehicles Can Use Blockchain. Retrieved November 25 2020 from https:\/\/innotechtoday.com\/autonomous-vehicles-blockchain\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","unstructured":"Philipp Sandnew. 2018. Analysis of Blockchain Technology in the Mobility Sector. Retrieved November 25 2020 from https:\/\/philippsandner.medium.com\/analysis-of-blockchain-technology-in-the-mobility-sector-1078e429615f."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_4_2","unstructured":"Intersoft Consulting. n.d. Art. 12 GDPR: Transparent Information Communication and Modalities for the Exercise of the Rights of the Data Subject. Retrieved November 26 2020 from https:\/\/gdpr-info.eu\/art-12-gdpr\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_5_2","unstructured":"S. Varankevich. n.d. Art. 13 GDPR: Information to Be Provided Where Personal Data Are Collected from the Data Subject. Retrieved November 26 2020 from https:\/\/gdpr-info.eu\/art-13-gdpr\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_6_2","unstructured":"Law Commission. n.d. Automated Vehicles. Retrieved March 1 2021 from https:\/\/www.lawcom.gov.uk\/project\/automated-vehicles\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_7_2","unstructured":"IBM. n.d. Blockchain-Powered Autonomous Automobiles Can Be the Answer. Retrieved October 26 2020 from https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/blogs\/blockchain\/2020\/04\/blockchain-powered-autonomous-automobiles-can-be-the-answer\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_8_2","unstructured":"Blockchain.com. n.d. Blockchain Size. Retrieved October 20 2020 from https:\/\/www.blockchain.com\/en\/charts\/blocks-size."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_9_2","unstructured":"BMW. n.d. BMW Blockchain. Retrieved November 26 2020 from https:\/\/www.bmw.com\/en\/innovation\/blockchain-automotive.html."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_10_2","unstructured":"CNN. n.d. CNNBlockchhain. Retrieved November 24 2020 from https:\/\/www.ccn.com\/uk-giant-seeks-patent-for-invention-mitigating-blockchain-attacks\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_11_2","unstructured":"GOV.UK. n.d. Connected and Automated Vehicles in the UK: 2020 Information Booklet. Retrieved November 28 2020 from https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/government\/publications\/connected-and-automated-vehicles-in-the-uk-2020-information-booklet."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_12_2","unstructured":"CUBE. n.d. CUBEINT. Retrieved November 1 2020 from https:\/\/cubeint.io\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/03\/CUBEWhite_Paper-V2.2.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_2","unstructured":"Internet of Business. n.d. Ford Renault GM BMW IBM Co-Found MOBI Blockchain Consortium. Retrieved November 25 2020 from https:\/\/internetofbusiness.com\/ford-renault-gm-bmw-ibm-co-found-mobi-blockchain-consortium\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_2","unstructured":"Bitcoin.com. n.d. FordBlockchain. Retrieved November 24 2020 from https:\/\/news.bitcoin.com\/ford-cryptocurrency-inter-vehicle-communication-system\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_2","unstructured":"Intersoft Consulting. n.d. GDPR Chapter 3: Rights of the Data Subject. Retrieved November 26 2020 from https:\/\/gdpr-info.eu\/chapter-3\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_2","unstructured":"Intersoft Consulting. n.d. General Data Protection Regulation: GDPR. Retrieved November 26 2020 from https:\/\/gdpr-info.eu\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_2","unstructured":"EDBP. 2020. Guidelines 1\/2020 on Processing Personal Data in the Context of Connected Vehicles and Mobility Related Applications. Retrieved November 29 2020 from https:\/\/edpb.europa.eu\/sites\/edpb\/files\/consultation\/edpb_guidelines_202001_connectedvehicles.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_2","unstructured":"ICO. n.d. ICO\u2014Information Principle (a): Lawfulness Fairness and Transparency. Retrieved March 5 2021 from https:\/\/ico.org.uk\/for-organisations\/guide-to-data-protection\/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr\/principles\/lawfulness-fairness-and-transparency\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_2","unstructured":"Assets Publishing Service. n.d. Innovation Is Great\u2014Connected and Automated Vehicles. Retrieved November 28 2020 from https:\/\/assets.publishing.service.gov.uk\/government\/uploads\/system\/uploads\/attachment_data\/file\/929352\/innovation-is-great-connected-and-automated-vehicles-booklet.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_2","unstructured":"Malwarebytes Labs. 2020. SolarWinds Advanced Cyberattack: What Happened and What to Do Now. Retrieved March 1 2020 from https:\/\/blog.malwarebytes.com\/threat-analysis\/2020\/12\/advanced-cyber-attack-hits-private-and-public-sector-via-supply-chain-software-update\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_21_2","unstructured":"Autovista Group. n.d. Toyota Builds Up Blockchain Abilities. Retrieved October 30 2020 from https:\/\/autovistagroup.com\/news-and-insights\/toyota-builds-blockchain-abilities."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_22_2","unstructured":"Insurance Journal. n.d. Toyota MIT Lab Eye Using Blockchain in Insurance Rating of Driverless and Shared Vehicles. Retrieved October 30 2020 from https:\/\/www.insurancejournal.com\/news\/national\/2017\/05\/23\/451913.htm."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-98923-5_7","volume-title":"Sustainable Interdependent Networks II","author":"Adnan Nadia","year":"2019","unstructured":"Nadia Adnan, Shahrina Md. Nordin, and Mohamad Ariff bin Bahruddin. 2019. Sustainable interdependent networks from smart autonomous vehicle to intelligent transportation networks. In Sustainable Interdependent Networks II. Springer, 121\u2013134."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sysarc.2019.101636"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_2","first-page":"14","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 1st Open NESSIE Workshop","volume":"13","year":"2000","unstructured":"P. S. L. M. Barreto and Vincent Rijmen. 2000. The Whirlpool hashing function. In Proceedings of the 1st Open NESSIE Workshop, Vol. 13. 14."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2019.8885769"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3235924.3235953"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1800137"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2971482"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/SDS.2019.8768669"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1700879"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.001.1900310"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2018.1700269"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_34_2","first-page":"1171","article-title":"Privacy in autonomous vehicles","volume":"52","author":"Glancy Dorothy J.","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dorothy J. Glancy. 2012. Privacy in autonomous vehicles. Santa Clara Law Review 52 (2012), 1171.","journal-title":"Santa Clara Law Review"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_35_2","first-page":"111","volume-title":"International Forum on Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications","author":"Kaiser Christian","year":"2018","unstructured":"Christian Kaiser, Marco Steger, Ali Dorri, Andreas Festl, Alexander Stocker, Michael Fellmann, and Salil Kanhere. 2018. Towards a privacy-preserving way of vehicle data sharing\u2014A case for blockchain technology? In International Forum on Advanced Microsystems for Automotive Applications. Springer, 111\u2013122."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_36_2","article-title":"What If Blockchain Offered a Way to Reconcile Privacy with Transparency?","author":"Kritikos Mihalis","year":"2018","unstructured":"Mihalis Kritikos. 2018. What If Blockchain Offered a Way to Reconcile Privacy with Transparency?European Parliamentary Research Service, Scientific Foresight Unit.","journal-title":"European Parliamentary Research Service, Scientific Foresight Unit."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/en11051062"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2020.01.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2019.2957744"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_40_2","first-page":"293","volume-title":"Proceedings of the National Cyber Summit","author":"Majumder Subhrajit","year":"2019","unstructured":"Subhrajit Majumder, Akshay Mathur, and Ahmad Y. Javaid. 2019. A study on recent applications of blockchain technology in vehicular adhoc network (VANET). In Proceedings of the National Cyber Summit. 293\u2013308."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/2965082"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_42_2","article-title":"Blockchain for the Internet of Vehicles towards intelligent transportation systems: A survey","author":"Mollah Muhammad Baqer","year":"2020","unstructured":"Muhammad Baqer Mollah, Jun Zhao, Dusit Niyato, Yong Liang Guan, Chau Yuen, Sumei Sun, Kwok-Yan Lam, and Leong Hai Koh. 2020. Blockchain for the Internet of Vehicles towards intelligent transportation systems: A survey. IEEE Internet of Things Journal 8, 6 (2020), 4157\u20134185.","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_43_2","article-title":"A blockchain based liability attribution framework for autonomous vehicles","author":"Oham Chuka","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chuka Oham, Salil S. Kanhere, Raja Jurdak, and Sanjay Jha. 2018. A blockchain based liability attribution framework for autonomous vehicles. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.05050 (2018).","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.05050"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5555\/3291291.3291303"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_2","article-title":"An Overview of Blockchain Scalability, Interoperability and Sustainability","author":"Qin Kaihua","year":"2018","unstructured":"Kaihua Qin and Arthur Gervais. 2018. An Overview of Blockchain Scalability, Interoperability and Sustainability. Hochschule Luzern Imperial College London Liquidity Network.","journal-title":"Hochschule Luzern Imperial College London Liquidity Network."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143165"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/5GWF.2019.8911664"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2019.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2836144"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2016.7795984"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09537325.2021.1979208"}],"container-title":["Journal of Data and Information Quality"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3460003","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1145\/3460003","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T21:28:28Z","timestamp":1750195708000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/dl.acm.org\/doi\/10.1145\/3460003"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1145\/3460003"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1145\/3460003","relation":{},"ISSN":["1936-1955","1936-1963"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1936-1955"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1936-1963"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2020-12-01","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-04-01","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2021-12-11","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}